Italian Grammar

Free Internet Italian Grammar

Tiber Island -- site of first known habitation in Rome (click image for larger view)
By TKWukitsch, Rome, 1999 (Revised, Washington, DC, 2008)
Optimized for horizontal resolution of 1024 or higher.
Alphabet and Pronunciation
 Consonant Pairs

Sentences
 Conjunctions
 Coordinate Conjunctions (e, ma, and o)
 Intensified Coordination (both...and, etc.)
 Subordinate Conjunctions
 Subordinate Clauses
 Noun clauses
 Sequence of Tenses in Noun Clauses
 Direct and Indirect Address
 Adverbial Clauses
 Adverb Clauses of Time
 Cause and Effect
 Conditional Clauses
 Possibility
 Supposition
 Comparative Clauses
 Hypothetical Clauses: Subjunctive After Se and Impersonal Expressions
 Other Clauses

Articles
 Definite Article
 Preposition-definite Article Contractions
 Indefinite Article
 Omission of the Article Top of Page
 Partitive Construction (Plural Article - "some")

Interjections

Prepositions
 Simple Prepositions
 Combined Forms/Contractions
 "Prepositioni Improprie"

Nouns
 Gender and Number
 Agreement
 Quantity in Nouns
 Non Count Nouns
 Noun/Adjective Suffixes
 Making Diminutives
 Making Augmentatives
 Making Pejoratives
 Other Noun/Adjective Suffixes

Adjectives and Adverbs
 Forming Adjectives
 Adjective Agreement
 Forming Adverbs
 Comparison of Adverbs and Adjectives
 Cardinal Adjectives: One, Every, Both, Many, Some, A Pair Or, A Few, Etc.
 Ordinal Numbers as Adjectives
 Indefinite Adjectives
 Negative Adjectives
 Possessives
 Demonstratives Top of Page

Pronouns
 Subject Pronouns
 Object Pronouns
 Disjunctive Pronouns
 Relative Pronouns
 Indefinite Pronouns
 Doubled Pronouns
 Imperative with Pronoun
 Pronominal and Adverbial Particles: "Ne", "ci", and "vi"

Negation

Verbs
 Conjugation: Tense, Person, and Number
 First Conjugation (-are)
 Third Conjugation (-ire)
 Second Conjugation (-ere)
 Avere and Essere
 Avere
 Essere
 Indicative Mood
 Present Tense
 Future Tense
 Other Ways of Expressing the Future
 Imperfect Tense
 Simple Past Tense
 Compound or Perfect Tenses
 Compound Indicative Top of Page
 Compound Subjunctive
 Present Perfect Tense
 Future Perfect Tense
 Pluperfect Tense
 Past Anterior or Preterite Perfect Tense
 Conditional Mood
 Present Conditional
 Past Conditional
 Subjunctive Mood
 Present Subjunctive
 Imperfect Subjunctive
 Perfect or Past Subjunctive
 Pluperfect Subjunctive
 Subjunctive Required in Dependent Clauses by Certain Verbs and Expressions
 Subjunctive after Se and Impersonal Expressions
 Imperatives
 Familiar Imperative (tu and voi)
 Polite form Imperative
 Reflexive Verbs
 Passive Voice
 Passive Conjugation
 Participles
 Infinitive
 Auxiliary Verbs
 Verbs Conjugated with Essere
 Irregular Verb List
 Polite vs. familiar forms
 Verb-Preposition Idioms Top of Page

Questions
 Interrogative Pronouns
 Interrogative Adverbs

Punctuation Differences
 Periods in Abbreviations
 Comma in Expressions of Time
 Quotation Marks (le virgolette)

Prefixes and Suffixes
 Common Prefixes
 Common Suffixes

Numbers
 Cardinal Numbers
 Formation
 Ambiguity: Billions, Trillions, etc.
 Collective Numbers (about ten, about twenty, etc., dozen)
 Forming Collective Numerals
 Mathematics
 Fractions
 Decimals (Frazione decimale)
 Multiplicative numbers (double, triple, etc.)
 Telephone numbers
 Ordinal Numbers
 Degree, Quality, or Position
 "To the Nth Power" Top of Page

Time
 "What time is it? "
 Minutes
 Quarter Hours (and Thirds)
 "At what time?","When?"
 Time Expressions
 One Time, Two Times, many times, at times, sometimes, etc
 Days, months, seasons, years, dates
 Days of the Week
 Months
 SEASONS
 DATES
 Centuries

Idiomatic Verb Constructions
 Piacere <to be pleasing to/to like>
 Fare
 Weather
 Professions
 to "Have something done"
 Other Idiomatic Fare Expressions
 Avere in "To be hungry, thirsty, etc."
 Essere vs. Stare
 C'e and Ci sono
 Aver bisogno di and Bisognare
 Volere
 Dare
 Andare
 Sapere and Conoscere

The Italian Alphabet and pronunciation:

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a	as in mama
b	as in boy
c	as in cat, before a consonant or the vowels A, O, U
c	like CH in chip, before the vowels I or E
d	as in dollar
e	(open) as in elbow
e	(closed) as in egg
f	as in forest
g	as in girl, before consonants and the vowels A, O, U
g	like J in jump, before the vowels I or E
h	is silent
i	like the e in the English word ego
j	is only used in foreign words
k	is only used in foreign words
l	as in like
m	as in motor
n	as in nickel
o	(open) as in over
o	(closed) as in olive
p	as in picture
q	as in queen (as in English, followed by u)
r	with a slight trill
s	as the z in zebra
t	as in table
u	as in fruit
v	as in vine (but sometimes like a w in older words)
w	is only used in foreign words (the w sound can also be made, as in Latin, by using an oe combination)
x	as in box
y	is only used in foreign words
z	as in TS combination in pits or the DS combination in pads

Consonant Pairs
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CH	before I or E is pronounced as a ck sound as in click
GH	before I or E is pronounced as a hard g sound as in gallop
RR	is "trilled" more than a single R
SS	is pronounced more like the S in English as in summer
ZZ	as in pizza
SCI or SCE	is pronounced as an SH sound as in sheet
SCA, SCU, SCHI or SCHE	is pronounced as SK in ski
GN	almost always has the pronunciation of the NY combination as in vineyard
GU	is pronounced like a GW sound as in language

Articles in Italian
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DEFINITE ARTICLE ("articolo determinativo"):
in italian has a number of different forms, depending on whether the noun it accompanies is masculine or feminine, singular or plural. It also changes its form according to the initial letters of the word that follows it.

MASCULINE SINGULAR, before:
single consonant:	il	*"il teatro"*	<the theater>
double consonants:	lo	*"lo specchio"*	<the mirror>
vowels:	l'	*"l'orso"*	<the bear>

MASCULINE PLURAL, before:
single consonants:	i	*"i denti"*	<the teeth>
double consonants:	*gli*	*"gli stivali"*	<the boots>
vowels:	*gli*	*"gli alberghi"*	<the hotels>

FEMININE SINGULAR, before:
consonants:	la	*"la casa"*	<the house>
vowels:	l'	*"l' anima"*	<the soul>

FEMININE PLURAL:
invariably:	le	*"le regole"*	<the rules>

"Z" and "X" count as double consonants ("DS" and "KS").
"Lo" and "la" elide (lose their vowels and take an apostrophe) before words beginning with a vowel.
Definite articles are used with nouns which are abstract, general or collective:
"la vita" <life>;
"l'oro" <gold>;
"la gente" <people>.

They are used with parts of the body and articles of clothing, where English would use a possessive adjective:
"le mani" <her hands>;
"le scarpe" <his shoes>.

Definite articles are also used with titles preceding a last name, except in direct address:
"Il signor Bianchi è di Firenze." <Mr. Bianchi is from Florence.>

BUT;
"Buon giorno, signor Bianchi" <Hello, Mr. Bianchi>.

Another important use of the definite article is with possessive adjectives:
"Ho perso il mio libro" .

The INDEFINITE ARTICLES ("articoli indeterminativi")are:
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MASCULINE, before:
single consonants:	un	*"un teatro"*	<a theater>
double consonants:	*uno*	*"uno specchio"*	<a mirror>
vowels:	un	*"un orso"*	<a bear>

FEMININE, before:
consonants:	*una*	*"una casa"*	<a house>
vowels:	*un'*	*"un' anima"*	<a soul>

Omission of the Article:

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The indefinite article is omitted after the verbs essere and diventare before nouns that indicate religion, profession, marital status, or titles:
Mario è dottore e Alfredo è avvocato. (Mario is a doctor and Alfredo is a lawyer.)
Io sono cattolica e lui è protestante. (I am Catholic and he is a Protestant.)
It is also omitted after che in exclamations:
Che bel uomo! (What a handsome man!)
Che peccato! (What a shame!)

The definite article is omitted after in with geographical terms if the terms are feminine and singular and not modified.
L'Emilia-Romagna è in Italia. (Emilia-Romagna is in Italy.)

It is omitted with names of cities.
Conosci Milano? (Do you know Milan?)
Avete mai visto Sorrento? (Have you ever seen Sorrento?)

In some common expressions.
a sinistra (to the left)
a destra (to the right)
in cima (on top)

"Some" or "any" is expressed in Italian in affirmative sentences by the partitive construction of di + the definite article.
Compro del formaggio e del pane. (I buy some cheese and some bread.)
Abbiamo dei parenti in Italia. (We have some relatives in Italy.)
Abbiamo comprato della carne. (We bought some meat.)

Plural Indefinite Articles: The partitive construction:

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can be considered as the plural form of the indefinite article. It is never used in negative sentences and is often omitted in questions.
Non vendono pane qui. (They don't sell bread here.)
Vuole carne o pesce? (Does he want meat or fish?)
The partitive is also expressed with un po' di with singular nouns and alcuni,-ewith plural nouns:
Devo comprare un po'di verdura. (I need to buy some vegetables.)
(I want to buy some apples.)

Interjections:
An interjection is a word or expression often given increased emotive value in the stream of speech. Interjections are rarely used in formal or business writing. In print interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark or a comma:
suvvia! = alas!
aiuto! = help!
hey! = hey!
oh! = wow!
ahi! = ouch!
bontà mia! = My goodness!

Ahi! Mi sono rotto una gamba! <Ouch! I broke my leg!>

Prepositions:

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Prepositions are invariable connecting words preceding elements in a sentence (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs) that show the relationship between other elements or other sentences:
La bicicletta di Paolo è rotta. <Paolo's bicycle is broken.>
Mettilo sul tavolo. <Put it on the table.>
Dopo averci detto tutto ciò, lui sparì. <After telling us all that, he disappeared.>
Per quello che lei ci disse, cambiammo idea. <Because of what she told us, we changed our mind.>
Simple Prepositions
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In Italian the basic or simple prepositions, are:

di (of)
a (at, to)
da (from)
in (in)
con (with)
su (on)
per (for)
tra (among, between)
fra (among, between)
sotto (under)
sopra (over)

Scrivo a Piero. <I'm writing to Piero.>

Poco lontano da qui, câè un ristorante. <Not too far from here, there is a restaurant.>

Carlo è tra quella folla. <Carlo is among that crowd.>

Some prepositions (a, da, di, in, su) contract and combine with the definite article to form a single word as shown in the chart below. (These are called preposizioni articolate.)

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al ristorante (to the restaurant)
Metti il libro sul tavolo. (Put the book on the table.)
Metti il libro nellâarmadio. (Put the book in the closet.)
Potrò vederti domani dalle 5 alle 7. (I can see you tomorrow, from 5 to 7.)
Saltò giú dal secondo piano. (He jumped from the second floor.)

ARTICLE PREPOSITION	IL	LO	L'	LA	I	*GLI*	LE
A	AL	*ALLO*	*ALL'*	*ALLA*	AI	*AGLI*	*ALLE*
DI	*DEL*	*DELLO*	*DELL'*	*DELLA*	*DEI*	*DEGLI*	*DELLE*
DA	*DAL*	*DALLO*	*DALL'*	*DALLA*	*DAI*	*DAGLI*	*DALLE*
IN	*NEL*	*NELLO*	*NELL'*	*NELLA*	*NEI*	*NEGLI*	*NELLE*
SU	*SUL*	*SULLO*	*SULL'*	*SULLA*	*SUI*	*SUGLI*	*SULLE*
*CON*	*COL*	*COLLO* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COLL'* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COLLA* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COI*	*COGLI* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COLLE* *(ARCHAIC)*

Along with the simple prepositions there is a group words, called preposizioni improprie which are actually adverbs, adjectives or rarely verbs, but often they function as prepositions:

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davanti (in front of)
avanti (in front of)
innanzi (in front of)
dietro (behind)
dentro (inside)
oltre (further)
presso (by)
fuori (outside)
sopra (over)
sotto (under)
su (on)
accanto (near by)
attorno (around)
intorno (around)
prima (before)
dopo (after)
lungo (along)
secondo (in accordance with)
vicino (near, close by)
Examples:
Vai fuori! (Go out!) (adverb)
Starò fuori città per qualche giorno. (I will be out of town for a few days.) (preposition)

Tu stai dietro. (You stay behind.) (adverb)
Lâaltro è dietro la casa. (The other is behind the house.) (preposition)

Mia nonna abita vicino. (My grandmother lives near by.) (adverb)
La casa di mia nonna è vicina. (My grandmother's house is close.) (adjective)
Mia nonna abita vicino a noi. (My grandmother lives near us.) (preposition)

Nouns: Gender and agreement

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Gender and number

NOUNS ("sostantivi") can have two GENDERS ("generi"), masculine and feminine, and two NUMBERS, singular and plural.

Generally speaking, masculine nouns end in "-o" (plural "-i") and feminine nouns end in "-a" (plural "-e"):
"il libro" <the book>, "i libri" <the books>;
"la casa" <the house>, "le case" <the houses>.

There are exceptions:
Some feminine nouns end in "-o". they either form the plural in "-i":
"la mano" <the hand>, "le mani" <the hands>;
or (if foreign loanwords ) remain unchanged,
"la foto" <the photograph>, "le foto" <the photographs>.

Some masculine nouns end in "-a"; they form their plural in "-i":
"il problema" <the problem>, "i problemi" <the problems>.

Some masculine nouns change their gender to feminine in the plural, with a singular-type "-a" ending rather than the usual plural form "-e":
"l'uovo" <the egg> BUT "le uova" <the eggs>;
"il dito" <the finger> BUT "le dita" <the fingers>.

There are also a number of nouns which do not end in "-o" or "-a."
Nouns ending in "-e," whether masculine or feminine, invariably form the plural in "-i":
"il fiore" <the flower>, "I fiori" <the flowers>;
"la lezione" <the lesson>; "le lezioni"<the lessons>.

Nouns ending in "-i" or an accented vowel do not change in the plural:
"la crisi" <the crisis>, "le crisi" <the crises>;
"la virtù" <the virtue>, "le virtù" <the virtues>;
"la città" <the city>, "le città" <the cities>.

The same is true of one-syllable nouns, and of foreign loanwords ending in a consonant:
"il re" <the king>, "i re" <the kings>;
"il film" <the movie>, "i film" <the movies>.

Some nouns ending in "-a" or "-e" can be either masculine or feminine, depending on the gender of the person being named by the noun:
"il pianista" <the male pianist>; "la pianista" <the female pianist>;
"il cantante" <the male singer>, "la cantante" <the female singer>.

Other nouns change their ending according to gender:
"l'attore" <the actor>, "l'attrice" <the actress>;
"il gallo" <the rooster>, "la gallina" <the hen>;
"il cameriere" <the waiter>, "la cameriera" <the waitress>.

There are also nouns that have both genders, but with a different meaning for each:
"il fine" <the purpose>, "la fine" <the conclusion>;
"il tema" <the topic>, "la tema" <fear>.

Agreement:

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A noun and its modifiers have the same gender and have number AGREEMENT. If a noun is feminine, its modifiers will be feminine:
"una antica chiesa" <an old church>.
If a noun is plural, its modifiers will be plural:
"i capelli grigi" <gray hairs>.

Quantity in nouns:

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Below are examples of countable nouns. Pay special attention to the expressions of quantity in parentheses. Those listed below are used only with countable nouns.
Expressions of Quantity Countable Nouns
uno (one) studente (student)
ogni (every) libro (book)
ogni (every) stanza (room)
due (two) piante (plants)
entrambi (both) ragazzi (boys)
un paio di (a pair of) scarpe (shoes)
alcuni (some/few) amici (friends)
molti (many) cani (dogs)
pochi (few) pesci (fish)
parecchi (quite a few/a lot) amici (friends)
meno (fewer) vantagi (advantages)

Below are examples of noncountable nouns. The expressions of quantity preceding parentheses are used only with noncountable nouns.

Expressions of Quantity Noncountable Nouns
un po' di (some/a little bit of) caffè (coffee)
molto (a lot of) ghiaccio (ice)
molta (many) gente (people)

Cardinal adjectives -- one, two, several etc. -- are used with noncountable mass nouns (nouns of substance) only in a very restricted context and mean portion:
Vogliamo due caffè per favore. (We want two coffees, please.)
Il cameriere ci ha portato un tè e un caffè. (The waiter brought us one tea and one coffee.)

Noncount nouns:

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refer to things that cannot be counted. In English they do not usually take a definite aritcle, but in Italian they often do.
Whole groups of similar items :

il cibo (food)
la posta (mail)
la roba (stuff)
la spazzatura (garbage)

Fluids:

il caffè (coffee)
il tè (tea)
il latte (milk)
l'olio (oil)
la benzina (gas)
l'aceto (vinegar)

Solids:

il ghiaccio (ice)
il burro (butter)
il formaggio (cheese)
la carne (meat)
il legno (wood)
il sale (salt)
il pane (bread)

Gases:

l'aria (air)
lo smog (smog)
l'ossigeno (oxygen)

Particles:

il riso (rice)
il grano (grain)
la farina (flour)
lo zucchero (sugar)
la sabbia (sand)

Abstract nouns:

la bellezza (beauty)
l'educazione (education)
la salute (health)
l'aiuto (help)
la violenza (violence)

Sports, games, and activities:

il calcio (soccer)
il baseball (baseball)
il football (football)
il poker (poker)

Nature:

il tempo (weather)
la nebbia (fog)
la pioggia (rain)
la neve (snow)
il fuoco (fire)
la luce (light)
il vento (wind) -- but, figuratively, "i quatri venti" = "the Four Winds"

Noun/Adjective Suffixes:
Suffixes modify the meaning of the base word and can be used to form adjectives from nouns and vice versa.
Suffixes can be used to form diminutives, augmentatives, and pejoratives (depreciatives), but they should be coined cautiously: many have preexisting figurative, slang, or sexual meanings.

Many other suffixes form adjectives from nouns and verbs, but most of these adjectives can stand alone as nouns -- the noun they modify can be an unspoken indefinite pronoun: one or some.

Diminutives:

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In English, the diminutive endings -let and -ie (-y) are added to nouns to connote small size or endearment: pig, piglet, piggie. Italian uses the diminutive ending in the same way.
The final vowel of the noun is dropped before adding the diminutive suffix. In the feminine form the -o changes to -a.

*-ino*	uccello --> uccellino (little bird)
*-icino*	cuore --> cuoricino (little heart)
*-etto*	giovane --> giovanetto (little young man)
*-ello*	fontana --> fontanella (little fountain)
*-olo*	figlio --> figliolo (little son)
*-uccio*	bocca --> boccuccia (cute, little mouth)
*-olino*	radio --> radiolina (little radio)
*-uzza*	via --> viuzza (little street)

	Sometimes diminutives connote a bad quality or contempt.
*-uccio*	casa --> casuccia (small, ugly house)
*-etto*	podere --> poderetto (worthless, little farm)

	Some nouns change meaning and gender when a suffix is attached.
*-ino*	camera --> camerino (room --> changing room)
*-ino*	coda --> codino (tail--> pigtail)
	*Caution: codina* (feminine) in some dialects means prostitute and codino (masculine) can be male prostitute if applied to a person.**
	N.B.: coin diminutives cautiously -- many (including all of the above) have preexisting slang or figurative, including sexual, meanings.

Augmentatives
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Augnentative suffixes are added to a noun to indicate large size or exaggeration of a quality. A common one is -one.

*-one*	naso --> nasone (big nose -- or a person who has one)
*-one*	libro --> librone (big book)
	Some feminine nouns when the -one suffix is attached change gender.
*-one*	la donna --> la donnone (big woman -- or too masculine or dominating, or a male transvestite)
*-one*	la febbre --> la febbrone (high fever -- or excitement, including sexual)
*-one*	la palla --> la pallone (soccer ball, or possibly male sexual arrousal without release)
*-one*	la stanza --> la stanzone (room large room)
	N.B.: coin augmentatives cautiously -- many have preexisting slang or figurative, including sexual, meanings.

Pejorative:
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The following suffixes convey the idea of ugliness or a bad quality:

*-accio*	ragazzo --> ragazzaccio (bad boy)
*-astro*	poeta --> poetastro (a terrible poet)
*-ucolo*	maestro --> maestrucolo (bad teacher)
*-accione*	uomo --> omaccione (ugly man)

Other Noun/Adjective Suffixes:

-aggine (-ness)	stupido --> stupidaggine (foolishness or a foolish act)
-aio (one who uses/makes/ sells/is in charge of)	forno --> fornaio (baker)
-anza/enza (makes abstract)	**vedova --> vedovanza (widowhood), magnifico --> magnificenza (magnificence)**
-ata (-ful) (a blow by means of) (an action)	cucchiai --> cucchiaiata (spoonful) pugnale --> pugnalata (dagger stab) cabrare (to zoom): cabrata (zooming or aerobatics)
-ere/ore (one who does)	**banco --> banchiere (banker), conquista --> conquistatore**
-eria (place where)	libro --> libreria (bookstore)
-ero (changes noun to adjective)	guerra -->guerriero (warlike)
-eto/-eta (grove/orchard)	pina --> pineta (pine grove/forest)
-ia (arts or sciences) (marks abstactions)	geologia (geology) maestro --> maestria (masterliness/mastery)
-iccio (-ish)	rosso --> rossicio (reddish one or reddish as an adjective)
-oso (characterized by)	rocco --> roccoso (rocky)
-ta' (-ty)	fraternita' (fraternity)
*-ura*	bravo --> bravura (something worth of a"bravo") alto --> altura (heights/highlands)
-uta (adjective-forming)	*barba --> barbuta (bearded)*

CONTRACTIONS:

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The definite articles form CONTRACTIONS ("contrazioni") with the prepositions
"a" <to, at, in>,
"di" <of, from, by, about>,
"da" <of, by, from, with>,
"in" <in, to>,
"su" <on>, and
"con" <with>:

ARTICLE PREPOSITION	IL	LO	L'	LA	I	*GLI*	LE
A	AL	*ALLO*	*ALL'*	*ALLA*	AI	*AGLI*	*ALLE*
DI	*DEL*	*DELLO*	*DELL'*	*DELLA*	*DEI*	*DEGLI*	*DELLE*
DA	*DAL*	*DALLO*	*DALL'*	*DALLA*	*DAI*	*DAGLI*	*DALLE*
IN	*NEL*	*NELLO*	*NELL'*	*NELLA*	*NEI*	*NEGLI*	*NELLE*
SU	*SUL*	*SULLO*	*SULL'*	*SULLA*	*SUI*	*SUGLI*	*SULLE*
*CON*	*COL*	*COLLO* (ARCHAIC)*	*COLL'* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COLLA* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COI*	*COGLI* *(ARCHAIC)*	*COLLE* *(ARCHAIC)*

*Modern Italian uses separate words in place of archaic forms: e.g., "con lo" vice "collo."
ADJECTIVES

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Forming Adjectives:
Some adjectives are formed from verbs by adding the suffix -nte.
Such adjectives are actually archaic forms of the present participle.
ardere (to burn) ---> ardente (hot)
fortificare (to fortify) ---> fortificante (fortifying)
Other adjectives are derived from the past participles of verbs.
scrivere (to write) --> scritto (written)
contorcere (to twist) --> contorto (twisted)

Adjectives are sometimes formed from nouns by adding the suffixes -so (English -ous) and -ico (English -ic).
miracolo(miracle) --> miracoloso (miraculous)
letargo (lethargy) --> letargico (lethargic)

ADJECTIVES agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify.

Regular adjectives with separate masculine and feminine forms end in -o (m.) and -a (f.) in the singular, -i (m.) and -e (f.) in the plural:
"Il battello è bianco" <The boat is white>;
"La colomba ha un'ala bianca" <The dove has a white wing>;
"I miei denti sono bianchi" <My teeth are white>;
"Le mie scarpe sono bianche" <My shoes are white>.
(Note that the letter "h" inserted in bianchi and bianche is there to keep the "hard" sound of the "c".)

Regular adjectives with identical masculine and feminine forms have a singular ending "-e" and a plural ending "-i":
"un vestito verde" <a green dress>;
"una mela verde" <a green apple>;
"dei alberi verdi" <some green trees>;
"delle tartaruge verdi" <some green turtles>.

N.B. Adjectives describing colors by means of nouns do not change form to show gender or number:
"la rosa" <the rose>, "rosa" <pink>, "dei fiori rosa" <some pink flowers>;
"la viola" <the violet>, "viola" <purple>, "un vestito viola" <a purple dress>.

Other adjectives describing colors that are invariable are:
"arancione" <orange>, "marrone" <brown>, "blu" <blue>,

If an adjective follows two nouns, it takes a plural form;
if one of the nouns is masculine, the adjective must be masculine plural:
"un vestito e una camicia rossi" <a red dress and a red shirt>.
(also note the difference between rossa = red and rosa = pink.)

If the adjective precedes two nouns, however, it agrees with the closest one:
"rosse camicie e vestiti" <red shirts and dresses>.

The POSITION of adjectives follows certain rules. Generally speaking, adjectives which describe or differentiate FOLLOW the nouns they modify:
"una fontana magnifica" <a magnificent fountain>;
"la mano destra" <the right hand>.

Adjectives PRECEDE the nouns they modify when they express an essential or characteristic quality, and when they limit or quantify:
"un piccolo asino" <a small donkey>;
"le poche case" <the few houses>;
"alcuni romanzi" <some novels>.

Some adjectives change meaning when they precede the noun, taking on a figurative sense:
"un uomo povero" <a poverty-stricken man> but "un pover' uomo" <an unfortunate fellow>.

ADVERBS:
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Forming Adverbs:
ADVERBS of manner are usually formed by adding the suffix "-mente" to adjectives in their feminine singular form:
"esatta" <exact>, "esattamente"<exactly>.
"Buono" <good> and "cattivo" <bad> have special adverbial forms:
"bene" <well> and "male" <badly>.

Some singular masculine adjectives are used adverbially:
"Parlo piano" ;
"Abitano vicino" <They live nearby>;
"Sempre risponde giusto" <She always answers correctly>.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES:
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The COMPARATIVE form of adjectives and adverbs is expressed by preceding them with "più" <more> or "meno" <less>:
"alto" <tall>, "più alto" <taller>;
"diligentemente" <diligently>, "meno diligentemente" <less diligently>.

The complete comparison is usually expressed with "di" <than> before nouns or pronouns and "che" <than> before modifiers:
"Giovanni è più vecchio di te" <John is older than you>;
"La lezione è più istruttiva che divertente" <The lesson is more informative than entertaining>.

The RELATIVE SUPERLATIVE of adjectives is expressed by preceding the comparative form with the definite article:
"il più giovane" <the youngest>;
"la meno veloce" <the least rapid>;
"i meno intelligenti" <the least intelligent>;
"le più attive" <the most active>.
(The definite article is not repeated if it already precedes the noun:
"la ragazza più intelligente" <the smartest girl>.)

The ABSOLUTE SUPERLATIVE of an adjective (indicating degree rather than comparison) is regularly formed by adding the suffix "-issimo," which is then inflected like a regular adjective:
"un libro utilissimo" <a very useful book>;
"una donna bellissima" <a very beautiful woman>.

The ABSOLUTE SUPERLATIVE of adverbs is formed by adding "-issimamente" to the stem of adverbs ending in "-mente" but "-issimo" to the stems of other adverbs:
-issimamente -- "lentamente" <slowly>, "lentissimamente" <very slowly>;
-issimo -- "spesso" <often>, "spessissimo" <very often>.

Adjectives and adverbs are sometimes doubled to express an absolute superlative:
"parla piano piano" <speak very softly>

Comparisons of Equality:
To form the comparison of equality with adjectives, use:

Tanto (as, so) + adjective + quanto (as) + noun
Angela e tanto bella quanto sua sorella. <Angela is as beautiful as her sister.>

or:

Cosi (as, so) + Adjective + come (as)
Angela e cosi bella come sua sorella. <Angela is as beautiful as her sister.>

(To form the comparison of equality with nouns, only tanto...quanto is used, and these words must agree with the nouns they modify:
Lui vende tanti libri quante reviste. <He sells as many books as magazines.>)

Comparisons of superiority or inferiority:
when two charcteristics or qualities of one person are being compared, use:
(Someone is) piu (more) or meno (less) + adjective + che (than) + adjective.

When comparing two persons or things, use:
(Someone or something is) piu (more) or meno (less) + adjective + di (someone or something else.)

In addition to the
regular (piu, il piu) forms, there are some irregular adjective comparisons:

Alto (high)	superiore (higher)	il superiore (highest)	supremo (very high)
Basso (low)	inferiore (lower)	l' inferiore (lowest)	infimo (very low)
Buono (good)	migliore (better)	il migliore (best)	ottimo (very good)
Cattivo (bad)	peggiore (worse)	il peggiore (worst)	pessimo (very bad)
Grande (large)	maggiore (older)	il maggiore (oldest)	massimo (very large)
Piccolo (small)	minore (younger)	il minore (youngest)	minimo (very small)

The two forms of comparison usually differ in meaning, and the differences are learned through experience and may differ regionally (piu grande <bigger> vs. maggiore <older>.)
There are similar irregular adverb comparisons:

Bene (well)	meglio (better)	il meglio (best)	ottimamente (excellently)
Male (badly)	peggio (worse)	il peggio (worst)	pessimamente (very badly)
Molto (much)	piu (more)	il piu (most)	moltissimo (very much)
Poco (little)	meno (less)	il meno (least)	pochissimo (very little)

The piu, il piu (and meno, il meno) forms of comparison are irregular adverb forms modifying base form adjectives:
il piu (adverb) grande (adjective) = <the most large> = <the biggest>
As in English, Combinations and doubling are also used for of emphasis and for special meanings:
il piu maggiore di maggiore <the oldest of the oldest>
meno il superiore <a little less than perfect>
maggiore maggiore <much older>

POSESSIVES

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POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES ("aggettivi possessivi") and POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ("pronomi possessivi") are usually compound forms which include a definite article that is not translated into English.
The forms of the possessive adjective are:

MASCULINE SINGULAR	MASCULINE PLURAL	FEMININE SINGULAR	FEMININE PLURAL	MEANINGS
*il mio*	*i miei*	*la mia*	*le mie*	<my>
*il tuo*	*i tuoi*	*la tua*	*le tue*	<your> familiar
*il suo*	*i suoi*	*la sua*	*le sue*	<his,her> or <your> polite
*il nostro*	*i nostri*	*la nostra*	*le nostre*	<our>
*il vostro*	*i vostri*	*la vostra*	*le vostre*	<your> familiar
*il loro*	*i loro*	*la loro*	*le loro*	<their,theirs> or <your> polite

Possessive pronouns are identical in form to possessive adjectives; the difference is in meaning. Where the possessive adjective "il mio" means "my," for example, the possessive pronoun "il mio" means "mine": "le tue scarpe e le mie" <your shoes and mine>.
It is important to note that possessives agree in gender and number with the thing possessed, rather than with the possessor:
"i miei amici" <my friends>
"la loro automobile" <their car>.

If ambiguity results from the use of possessives, possession may be expressed by means of "di" with a disjunctive pronoun: "la sua valigia" <his or her or your suitcase>; "la valigia di lui" <his suitcase>.

If the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, "proprio" may be used instead of "suo" or "loro":
"Giovanni porta la propria valigia" <John carries his own suitcase>.
"Proprio" MUST be used after impersonal expressions:
"Bisogna portare le proprie valige" <One must carry one's own pieces of luggage>.

When referring to articles of clothing and parts of the body, the definite article is regularly used instead of the possessive adjective:
"le scarpe" <her shoes>; "la testa" <his head>.

Demonstratives:

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The DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES ("aggettivi dimostrativi") are:

singular masculine	plural masculine	singular feminine	plural feminine	meanings
*questo*	*questi*	*questa*	*queste*	<this> <these>
*quello*	*quelli*	*quella*	*quelle*	<that> <those>
*codesto*	*codesti*	*codesta*	*codeste*	<that> <those>

"Codesto" refers to something near the person being spoken to, but itis falling into disuse: "quello" is replacing it.
"Questa" is sometimes shortened to "sta" and contracted with the noun it modifies:
"questa sera" <this evening>, "stasera" <this evening>.

There is elision of "questo," "questa," and "quella" before a noun beginning with a vowel:
"quest'aereo" <this airplane>;
"quest'aula" <this classroom>;
"quell'autostrada" <that highway>.

Demonstratives agree in gender and number with the nouns
they modify, and always precede them:
"questo libro" <this book>;
"quella casa" <that house>.

The DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ("pronomi dimostrativi") are identical in form to the demonstrative adjectives, but mean "this one," "that one," etc. They are used alone, but refer back to something mentioned earlier (the antecedent) and agree with it in number and gender:
"Questa casa è bianca e quella è nera" <This house is white and that one is black>.

Pronouns:

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SUBJECT PRONOUNS ("pronomi") are often omitted, since the verb form indicates the subject:
"Ho freddo" <I'm cold>.
When subject pronouns are used, it is for purposes of emphasis, clarification or courtesy:
"Io ho freddo" <I, for my part, am cold>;
"Lui detesta il film" <He hates the movie>;
"Vorrebbe Lei venire con me?" <Would you like to come with me?>.

The subject pronouns are:

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	Singular	Plural
1st person	io <I>	noi <we>
2nd person familiar	tu <you>	voi <you all>
2nd person polite	Lei <you>	Loro <you all>
3rd person	lui <him>	loro <them>
	lei <her>	loro <them>
	esso <it (m,)>	essi <them (m.)>
	essa <it (f.)>	esse <them (f.)>
Note that second person polite form pronouns are capitalized.

In literary usage, "eghli"is sometimes used for "lei" <him>; "ella" is sometimes used for "lei" <her>. Such usage is mainly literary.
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OBJECT PRONOUNS are either direct or indirect, and cannot stand alone without a verb. The direct object receives the action of the verb directly while the indirect object is indirectly affected by it. With the exception of "loro," they PRECEDE the conjugated verb:
"Ti ho visto ieri" ;
"gli ho dato il mio numero di telefono" .
The forms of the direct and indirect object pronouns are:

Singular	Direct	indirect
1st	mi <me>	mi <to me>
2nd familiar	ti <you>	ti <to you>
2nd polite	La <you>	Le <to you>
3rd masculine	lo <him/it>	gli <to him/to it>
3rd feminine	la <her/it>	le <to her/to it>

Plural	Direct	Indirect
1st	ci <us>	ci <to us>
2nd familiar	vi <you>	vi <to you>
2nd polite masculine	Li <you>	Loro <to you>
2nd polite femimine	Le <you>	Loro <to you>
3rd masculine	li <them>	loro <to them>
3rd feminine	le <them>	loro <to them>

With the exception of "loro," pronouns regularly precede the conjugated verb, but they are attached to infinitives (which drop the final "-e"), participles and familiar commands:
"Sono venuto per vederlo" ;
"Sto chiamandolo" ;
"Ascoltami" <Listen to me!>.
In a compound (perfect) infinitive, the pronoun is attached to the auxiliary verb:
"averti chiamato" <having called you>.

Some one-syllable familiar commands double the first consonant of the object pronoun:
"Dimmi" <Tell me!>.

"Lo" is used as a neuter pronoun referring back to a general idea or situation:
"Vale la pena -- Sì, lo so!" <It's worth the trouble-- Yes, I know it!>.

When direct and indirect pronouns are used together, the indirect pronoun comes first. "Loro" is the exception to this rule; it always follows the verb:
"Lo disse loro" <He said it to them>.

Before "lo," "la," "li," "le," and "ne," the indirect object pronouns change their form as follows:

*mi --> me:*	*"Giovanni me lo diede"*	<John gave it to me>
*ti --> te:*	*"Te lo ho comprato"*	<I bought it for you>
*ci --> ce:*	*"Ce lo dà"*	<He gives it to us>
*vi --> ve:*	*"Ve l'ho detto ieri"*	<I said it to you yesterday>
*gli--> glie:*	*"Glieli manderò"*	<I'll send them to him>
*gli --> glie:*	*"Glielo dicono"*	<They say it to her>

Note that "glie" combines with the direct object pronoun.
The 3rd person reflexive pronoun singular and plural "si" changes to "se" before a direct object pronoun:
"Si lava la faccia? Sì, se la lava." <Does he wash his face? Yes, he washes it>

After prepositions, the following DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS are used:

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	Singular	Plural
1st person	me <me/myself>	noi <us/ourselves>
2nd person familiar	te <you/yoursef>	voi <you all/yourselves>
2nd person polite	Lei <you>	Loro <you>
3rd person	lui <him>	loro <them>
	lei <her>	loro <them>
	esso <it(m.)>	essi <them (m.)>
	essa <it (f.)>	esse <them (f.)>
	se <yourself/himself>	se <youselves/themselves>
	se <heself/itself/oneself>	se <yourselves/themselves>

These pronouns, also known as stressed pronouns ("pronomi tonici"),are used most frequently as objects of prepositions. "Parla a me?" <Are you speaking to me?> "Preferisco lavorare per lei" .

Relative pronouns:

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS ("pronomi relativi") introduce a subordinate clause and represent persons or things mentioned previously. They can function as either subject or object pronouns without any change in form.
The most common relative pronouns are:

1) "che" or "il quale" <who, which, that>, referring to a specific antecedent:
"L'uomo che hai visto è italiano" <The man you saw is Italian>;
"Giulia, la quale è italiana, non parla inglese" <Julia, who is Italian, doesn't speak English>;

2) "quel che," "quello che" or "ciò che" <what>, referring to an unspecified antecedent:
"Quel che ha fatto non m'interessa" <What she did doesn't interest me>;
"Non so quello che ha fatto" ;
"Fa ciò che vuole" <She does what she wants>;

3) the impersonal pronoun "chi" <the one who/whom>:
"Chi ride vince" <He who laughs wins>.

After a preposition, the invariable pronoun "cui" is used in place of "che":
"Ecco la signora di cui parlai" <Here is the woman of whom I spoke>.

Indefinite Pronouns:

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Such pronouns refer to indefinite (sometimes unknown) persons or things or to indefinite quantities:
Poco fa qualcuno ha bussato alla porta.<Not too long ago somebody knocked at the door..

A nessuno è permesso di parcheggiare lâauto in quella strada.<Nobody is permitted to park the car on that street.>

Chiunque può farlo.<Anybody can do it.>

Tutto è possibile in questa situazione.<Everything is possible in this situation.>

Se ti regalano molti libri ricordati che ne vorrei alcuni anchâio.<If they donate many books to you, remember that I would like some too.>

Tutti applaudirono.<All of them clapped their hands.>

The following indefinite pronouns become indefinite adjectives when they accompany a noun:
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poco (little)
alquanto (pretty much)
tanto (much)
altrettanto (as much)
molto (much)
troppo (too much)
tutto (all)
ciascuno (each)
altro (other)
vario (various)
tale (such)

Ho bisogno di molti soldi. (adjective) 

Quanto costano questi bicchieri? Me ne servono molti. (pronoun) <How much are these cups? I need many of them.>

Ho pochi soldi. (adjective) 

Devo controllare quanti soldi ho. Ne ho pochi. (pronoun) 

Non mi è piaciuto nessun vestito tra quelli che ho visto. (adjective). (I didn't like any of those dresses that I saw.)

Sì, ho visto I vestiti, ma non mi è piaciuto nessuno. (pronoun) <Yes, I saw the dresses, but I didnât like any of them.>

The following indefinite pronouns can be used only and exclusively as pronouns:
Uno/-a, (a person), indicates a single person, but sometimes can be used in the plural:
Ha telefonato uno, che voleva parlarti. <Somebody called who wanted to talk to you.>

Ho ascoltato le opinioni degli uni e degli altri. 

Qualcuno/qualcuna, <somebody> is used only in the singular.
Qualcuno ha bussato alla porta. <Somebody knocked at the door.>

Ho preparato dei panini. Prendine qualcuno.

Ognuno/ognuna <each one/every>, is used only in the singular
Ognuno darà il suo contributo. <Each person will give his/her own contribution.>

Chiunque <anybody, whoever> is only used in the singular and refers only to people.
Chiunque potrebbe farlo. <Anybody could do it.>

Chicchessia <whoever>, used only in the singular, refers only to people.
Non ho paura di chiccessia. <I'm not afraid of anybody.>

Qualcosa <something> is invariable and refers to things in general.
Dimmi qualcosa delle tue vacanze. (Tell me something about your vacation.>

Niente or nulla (nothing), is also invariable.
Non ho paura di niente. <I'm not afraid of anything.> (Notice the use of the double negative )

Negative Pronouns:

nessuno (nobody, none)
alcuno (none)

Doubled Pronouns (Pronomi doppi):

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When both the direct and indirect object are expressed by pronouns:
The indirect object pronoun always is first,
The -i ending of mi, ti, ci, and vi indirect object pronouns changes to -e,
An -e is added to gli, glie form and the direct objec pronoun are written as one word.

\direct indirect\	lo	la	li	le	ne
mi	*me lo*	*me la*	*me li*	*me le*	*me ne*
ti	*te lo*	*te la*	*te li*	*te le*	*te ne*
*gli, le, Le*	*glielo*	*gliela*	*glieli*	*gliele*	*gliene*
ci	*ce lo*	*ce la*	*ce li*	*ce le*	*ce ne*
vi	*ve lo*	*ve la*	*ve li*	*ve le*	*ve ne*
*...loro o gli*	*lo... loro* *glielo*	*la... loro* *gliela*	*li... loro* *glieli*	*le... loro* *gliele*	*ne... loro* *gliene*

Both pronouns are always before the verb:
Te lo regalo. Ve ne ho parlato. Glieli manderò. Me li hai comprati?
unless the verb is an infinitive, in which case they are attaged as suffixes to the infinitive:
E' importante parlargliene
(exceptions to the exception: Voglio/Posso/So/Devo parlargliene or Gliene voglio/posso/so/devo parlare.)

or an imperative, where they are also attached to the verb form
Diglielo! Compramelo!

Imperative with Pronoun:

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Pronouns are always attached to the end of imperatives:
Andiamoci! Non fatelo! Compramelo! Parlagli! (but also Parla loro!) Svegliati! Alziamoci!
Negative imperatives (tu) alow two constructions:
Non andarci! or Non ci andare! - Non comprarmelo! or Non me lo comprare!

Negation:

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A verb is negated by preceding it with "non." When there is an object pronoun in front of the verb, "non" comes before the object pronoun:
"Non mi telefona" <He doesn't call me>.
A negative response, as in English, may consist of the single word "No":
"Lei parla italiano?-- No" <Do you speak Italian?-- No>.

Double negatives are standard in Italian:
"Non vedo nessuno" .

Verbs "i verbi":

Conjugation: tense, person, and number
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There are three verb CONJUGATIONS ("coniugazione") in Italian, identified by the endings of the infinitives:

First Conjugation	-are	"parlare"	<to talk>
Second Conjugation	-ere	"vendere"	<to sell>
Third Conjugation	-ire	"dormire"	<to sleep>

There are four SIMPLE TENSES:

PRESENT:	"Parlo"	<I speak>
FUTURE:	"Parlerò"	<I will speak>
IMPERFECT:	"Parlavo"	<I used to speak>
SIMPLE PAST:	"Parlai"	<Ispoke>

There are four COMPOUND TENSES:

PRESENT PERFECT:	"Ho parlato"	<I have spoken, I spoke>
-	"Sono arrivato"	<I have arrived, I arrived>
FUTURE PERFECT:	"Avrò parlato"	<I will have spoken>
-	"Sarò arrivato"	<I will have arrived>
PLUPERFECT:	"Avevo parlato"	<I had spoken>
-	"Ero arrivato"	<I had arrived>
PAST ANTERIOR:	"Ebbi parlato"	<I had spoken>
-	"Fui arrivato"	<I had arrived>

The pluperfect is sometimes called the past perfect or first past perfect; the past anterior is sometimes called the preterite perfect or second past perfect.
There are four verbal MOODS or modes ("modi"):

INDICATIVE (stating a fact): "Parlo italiano" 

SUBJUNCTIVE (expressing an attitude): "Credo che lei parli italiano" 

CONDITIONAL (indicating a possibility): "Gli studenti parlerebbero italiano, se potessero"
<The students would speak Italian if they could>

IMPERATIVE (giving a command): "Parla italiano!" <Speak Italian!>

The conjugated forms of verbs agree with the person and number of the subject. There are two NUMBERS (singular and plural) and three PERSONS. First person is the speaker; second person is the one spoken to; third person is the one spoken
about.

1ST PERSON:	io parlo <I speak>	noi parliamo <we speak>
2ND PERSON:	tu parli <you speak>	voi parlate <you speak>
3RD PERSON:	lei parla <she speaks>	loro parlano <they speak>

The "Lei/Loro" (polite "you") form of address is second person but uses third person verb forms.

First Conjugation:
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Present Infinitive                               Past Infinitive (Perfect Infinitive)
      parlare (to talk)                                    avere parlato
Present Participle                              Past Participle
      parlando                                                 parlato, -ata, -ati, -ate

	Present		Present Perfect
io	parlo	-	ho Parlato
tu	parli	-	hai parlato
lui/lei	parla	-	ha Parlato
noi	parliamo	-	abbiamo parlato
voi	parlate	-	avete parlato
loro	parlano	-	hanno parlato

	Imperfect		Pluperfect (Past Perfect)
io	parlavo	-	avevo parlato
tu	parlavi	-	avevi parlato
lui/lei	parlava	-	aveva parlato
noi	parlavamo	-	avevamo parlato
voi	parlavate	-	avevate parlato
loro	parlavano	-	avevano parlato

	Future		Future Perfect (Future Anterior)
io	parlerò	-	avrò parlato
tu	parlerai	-	avrai parlato
lui/lei	parlerà	-	avrà parlato
noi	parleremo	-	avremo parlato
voi	parlerete	-	avrete parlato
loro	parleranno	-	avranno parlato

	Simple past		Preterite Perfect (Past Anterior)
io	parlai	-	ebbi parlato
tu	parlasti	-	avesti parlato
lui/lei	parlò	-	ebbe parlato
noi	parlammo	-	avemmo parlato
voi	parlaste	-	aveste parlato
loro	parlarono	-	ebbero parlato

	-Present Subjunctive		Past Subjunctive
io	parli	-	abbia parlato
tu	parli	-	abbia parlato
lui/lei	parli	-	abbia parlato
noi	parliamo	-	abbiamo parlato
voi	parliate	-	abbiate parlato
loro	parlino	-	abbiano parlato

	Imperfect Subjunctive		Past Perfect Subjunctive
io	parlassi	-	avessi parlato
tu	parlassi	-	avessi parlato
lui/lei	parlasse	-	avesse parlato
noi	parlassimo	-	avessimo parlato
voi	parlaste	-	aveste parlato
loro	parlassero	-	avessero parlato

	Present Conditional		Past Conditional
io	parlerei	-	avrei parlato
tu	parleresti	-	avresti parlato
lui/lei	parlerebbe	-	avrebbe parlato
noi	parleremmo	-	avremmo parlato
voi	parlereste	-	avreste parlato
loro	parlerebbero	-	avrebbero parlato

	Present Imperative
tu	parla
Lei	parli
voi	parlate
Loro	parlino

Second Conjugation
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Present Infinitive                               Past Infinitive (Perfect Infinitive)
     vendere (to sell)                                      avere venduto
Present Participle                              Past Participle
     vendendo                                                  venduto, -uta, -uti, -ute

	Present		Perfect (Passato Prossimo)
io	vendo	-	ho venduto
tu	vendi	-	hai venduto
lui/lei	vende	-	ha venduto
noi	vendiamo	-	abbiamo venduto
voi	vendete	-	avete venduto
loro	vendono	-	hanno venduto

	Imperfect		Pluperfect (PastPerfect)
io	vendevo	-	avevo venduto
tu	vendevi	-	avevi venduto
lui/lei	vendeva	-	aveva venduto
noi	vendevamo	-	avevamo venduto
voi	vendevate	-	avevate venduto
loro	vendevano	-	avevano venduto

	Future		Future Perfect (Future anterior)
io	venderò	-	avrò venduto
tu	venderai	-	avrai venduto
lui/lei	venderà	-	avrà venduto
noi	venderemo	-	avremo venduto
voi	venderete	-	avrete venduto
loro	venderanno	-	avranno venduto

	Simple Past (Historic)		Past Anterior
io	vendei	-	ebbi venduto
tu	vendesti	-	avesti venduto
lui/lei	vendè	-	ebbe venduto
noi	vendemmo	-	avemmo venduto
voi	vendeste	-	aveste venduto
loro	venderono	-	ebbero venduto

	Present Subjunctive		Past Subjunctive
io	venda	-	abbia venduto
tu	venda	-	abbia venduto
lui/lei	venda	-	abbia venduto
noi	vendiamo	-	abbiamo venduto
voi	vendiate	-	abbiate venduto
loro	vendano	-	abbiano venduto

	Imperfect Subjunctive		Past Perfect Subjunctive
io	vendessi	-	avessi venduto
tu	vendessi	-	avessi venduto
lui/lei	vendesse	-	avesse venduto
noi	vendessimo	-	avessimo venduto
voi	vendeste	-	aveste venduto
loro	vendessero	-	avessero venduto

	Present Conditional		Past Conditional
io	venderei	-	avrei venduto
tu	venderesti	-	avresti venduto
lui/lei	venderebbe	-	avrebbe venduto
noi	venderemmo	-	avremmo venduto
voi	vendereste	-	avreste venduto
loro	venderebbero	-	avrebbero venduto

	PresentImperative
tu	vendi
Lei	venda
voi	vendete
Loro	vendano

Third Conjugation
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Present Infinitive                               Past Infinitive (Perfect Infinitive)
     dormire (to sleep)                                    avere dormito
Present Participle                              Past Participle
     dormendo                                                 dormito, -ita, -iti, -ite

	Present		Perfect (Passato Prossimo)
io	dormo	-	hodormito
tu	dormi	-	haidormito
lui/lei	dorme	-	hadormito
noi	dormiamo	-	abbiamodormito
voi	dormite	-	avetedormito
loro	dormono	-	hannodormito

	Imperfect		Pluperfect (Past Perfect)
io	dormivo	-	avevo dormito
tu	dormivi	-	avevi dormito
lui/lei	dormiva	-	aveva dormito
noi	dormivamo	-	avevamo dormito
voi	dormivate	-	avevate dormito
loro	dormivano	-	avevano dormito

	Future		Future Perfect (Future Anterior)
io	dormirò	-	avrò dormito
tu	dormirai	-	avrai dormito
luilei	dormirà	-	avrà dormito
noi	dormiremo	-	avremo dormito
voi	dormiete	-	avrete dormito
loro	dormiranno	-	avranno dormito

	Simple Past (Historic)		Past Anterior
io	dormii	-	ebbi dormito
tu	dormisti	-	avesti dormito
lui/lei	dormì	-	ebbe dormito
noi	dormimmo	-	avemmo dormito
voi	dormiste	-	aveste dormito
loro	dormirono	-	ebbero dormito

	Present Subjunctive		Past Subjunctive
io	dorma	-	abbia dormito
tu	dorma	-	abbia dormito
lui/lei	dorma	-	abbia dormito
noi	dormiamo	-	abbiamo dormito
voi	dormiate	-	abbiate dormito
loro	dormano	-	abbiano dormito

	Imperfect subjunctive		Past Perfect Subjunctive
io	dormissi	-	avessi dormito
tu	dormissi	-	avessi dormito
lui/lei	dormisse	-	avesse dormito
noi	dormissimo	-	avessimo dormito
voi	dormiste	-	aveste dormito
loro	dormissero	-	avessero dormito

	Present Conditional		Past Conditional
io	dormirei	-	avrei dormito
tu	dormiresti	-	avresti dormito
lui/lei	dormirebbe	-	avrebbe dormito
noi	dormiremmo	-	avremmo dormito
voi	dormireste	-	avreste dormito
loro	dormirebbero	-	avrebbero dormito

	Present Imperative
tu	dormi
Lei	dorma
voi	dormite
Loro	dormano

Avere and Essere:
Avere (to have)
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	Present	Imperfect	Simple Past	Future	Present subjunctive	Imperfect Subjunctive	Conditional	Gerund present:
io	ho	avevo	ebbi	avrò	abbia	avessi	avrei	avendo
tu	hai	avevi	avesti	avrai	abbia	avessi	avresti
lui/ lei	ha	aveva	ebbe	avrà	abbia	avesse	avrebbe
noi	abbiamo	avevamo	avemmo	avremmo	abbiamo	avessimo	avremmo	Past participle:
voi	avete	avevate	aveste	avrete	abbiate	aveste	avreste	avuto
loro	hanno	avevano	ebbero	avranno	abbiano	avessero	avrebbero

essere (to be)
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	Present	Imperfect	Simple Past	Future	Present subjunctive	Imperfect Subjunctive	Conditional	Gerund present:
io	sono	ero	fui	sarò	sia	fossi	sarei	essendo
tu	sei	eri	fosti	sarai	sia	fossi	saresti
lui/ lei	è	era	fu	sarà	sia	fosse	sarebbe
noi	siamo	eravamo	fummo	saremo	siamo	fossimo	saremmo	Past participle:
voi	siete	eravate	foste	sarete	siate	foste	sareste	stato
loro	sono	erano	furono	saranno	siano	fossero	sarebbero

The PRESENT tense ("presente"):

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of regular verbs is formed by adding a set of personal endings to the verb stem.

	First conjugation		Second conjugation
	"parlare"	<to speak>	"vendere"	<to sell>
io	parl-o	<I speak	vend-o	<I sell>
tu	parl-i	<you speak>	vend-i	<you sell>
lei	parl-a	<she speaks>	vend-e	<she sells>
noi	parl-iamo	<we speak>	vend-iamo	<we sell>
voi	parl-ate	<you speak>	vend-ete	<you sell>
loro	parl-ano	<they speak>	vend-ono	<they sell>

	Third conjugation		Third (-isco) congugation
	"dormire"	<to sleep>	"pulire"	<to clean>
io	dorm-o	<I sleep>	pul-isco	<I clean>
tu	dorm-i	<you sleep>	pul-isci	<you clean>
lei	dorm-e	<she sleeps>	pul-isce	<she cleans>
noi	dorm-iamo	<we sleep>	pul-iamo	<we clean>
voi	dorm-ite	<you sleep>	pul-ite	<you clean>
loro	dorm-ono	<theysleep>	pul-iscono	<theyclean>

The present tense can have the sense of the English present progressive:
"scrive" <she is writing>.
The present tense is also used in conversation to refer to actions which will take place in the immediate future.

It is occasionally used in literature to replace the past tense, lending an immediacy to the narrative (vivid present).

The FUTURE tense ("futuro"):

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is formed on the basis of a future stem, which is the same as the infinitive (dropping the final "-e"), except that the A of 1st conjugation -AR verbs changes to E. Identical personal endings are used for all three conjugations:

	FIRST CONJUGATION		SECOND CONJUGATION
	"parlare"	<tospeak>	"vendere"	<to sell>
	future stem: parler-		future stem: vender-
io	Parler-ò	<I will speak>	vender-ò	<I will sell>
tu	parler-ai	<you will speak>	vender-ai	<you will sell>
lei	parler-à	<she will speak>	vender-à	<she will sell>
noi	parler-emo	<we will speak>	vender-emo	<we will sell>
voi	parler-ete	<you will speak>	vender-ete	<you will sell>
loro	parler-anno	<they will speak>	vender-anno	<they will sell>

	THIRD CONJUGATION
	"dormire"	<to sleep>
	future stem: dormir-
io	dormir-ò	<I will sleep>
tu	dormir-ai	<you will sleep>
lei	dormir-à	<she will sleep>
noi	dormir-emo	<we will sleep>
voi	dormir-ete	<you will sleep>
loro	dormir-anno	<they will sleep>

In addition to expressing future time, the future tense is used to express uncertainty or probability in the present: "Saranno le cinque" <It must be around five o'clock>.

Other ways of expressing the future:

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The present tense in Italian can be used to express actions intended or planned for the near future. Words denoting future time such as "domani (tomorrow)," "stasera (this evening)," etc., are usual but not necessary indicators of this construction.
Vieni con noi [domani sera]? (Are you coming with us [tomorrow evening]?)
No, mi dispiace -- [domani sera] lavoro. (No, I'm sorry -- I'm working [tomorrow evening].)
The future tense is often used in Italian to make a guess about something in the present. This is called the future of possibility.
Che ore saranno? (What time could it be?) Saranno le due. (It could be around two.)
Di chi è questo libro? (Whose book is this?) Sarà di Sergio. (It might be Sergio's.)

The IMPERFECT tense ("imperfetto"):

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of regular verbs is formed by replacing the final "_re" of the infinitive form with personal endings. Those endings always begin with the letter "v" and are identical for all three conjugations.

	FIRST CONJUGATION		SECOND CONJUGATION
	"parlare"	<to sell>	"vendere"	<to sell>
	imperfect stem: parla		imperfect stem: vende
io	parla--vo	<I used to speak>	vende--vo	<I sold>
tu	parla--vi	<you used to speak>	vende--vi	<you sold>
lei	parla--va	<she used to speak>	vende--va	<she sold>
noi	parla--vamo	<we used to speak>	vende--vamo	<we sold>
voi	parla--vate	<you used to speak>	vende--vate	<you sold>
loro	parla--vano	<they used to speak>	vende--vano	<they sold>

	THIRD CONJUGATION
	"dormire"	<to sleep>
	perfect stem: dormi-
io	dormi-vo	<I was sleeping>
tu	dormi-vi	<you were sleeping>
lei	dormi-va	<she was sleeping>
noi	dormi-vamo	<we were sleeping>
voi	dormi-vate	<you were sleeping>
loro	dormi-vano	<they were sleeping>

The imperfect tense describes a situation in the past, or an action which was ongoing or repeated. For this reason, it is sometimes called the past descriptive.

The SIMPLE PAST tense ("passato remoto"):

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of regular verbs is formed by adding personal endings directly to the verb stems. Each conjugation has a separate set of endings:

	FIRST CONJUGATION		SECOND CONJUGATION
	"parlare"	<to speak>	"vendere"	<to sell>
io	parl-ai	<I spoke>	vend-ei	<I sold>
tu	parl-asti	<you spoke>	vend-esti	<you sold>
lei	parl-ò	<she spoke>	vend-è	<she sold>
noi	parl-ammo	<we spoke>	vend-emmo	<we sold>
voi	parl-aste	<you spoke>	vend-este	<you sold>
loro	parl-arono	<they spoke>	vend-erono	<they sold>

	THIRD CONJUGATION
	"dormire"	<to sleep>
io	Dorm-ii	<I slept>
tu	dorm-isti	<you slept>
lei	dorm-ì	<she slept>
noi	dorm-immo	<we slept>
voi	dorm-iste	<you slept>
loro	dorm-irono	<they slept>

Second conjugation -ERE verbs have the following alternate endings (unless the verb stem ends in "-t", as with "pot-ere"):
io vend-etti; lei vend-ette; loro vend-ettero.
The simple past tense narrates an action with a beginning and an end. For this reason, it is sometimes called the past historic. It is also called the preterite, or the past absolute.

The COMPOUND or PERFECT TENSES:

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are formed with the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" and the past participle of the main verb.
"Avere" is used with transitive verbs, and with many intransitive verbs which express an action:
"Non l'ho visto" ;
"Ho parlato" .
The past participle does not agree with the subject, although it agrees with a preceding direct object:
"Non l'ho vista" .

"Essere" is used with reflexive verbs, reciprocal verbs, and verbs which express a change or continuance in a certain state:
"Mi sono lavato" ;
"Ci siamo parlati" <We have spoken to one another>;
"Eravate partite" <You women had left>.
Notice that the past participle agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb.

There are four compound tenses in the INDICATIVE mood:
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PRESENT PERFECT:	"Ho parlato"	<I have spoken, I spoke>
	"Sono arrivato"	<I have arrived, I arrived>
FUTURE PERFECT:	"Avrò parlato"	<I will have spoken>
	"Sarò arrivato"	<I will have arrived>
PLUPERFECT:	"Avevo parlato"	<I had spoken>
	"Ero arrivato"	<I had arrived>
PAST ANTERIOR:	"Ebbi parlato"	<I had spoken>
	"Fui arrivato"	<I had arrived>

The present perfect uses a present tense auxiliary;
the future perfect uses a future tense auxiliary;
the pluperfect uses an imperfect auxiliary;
the past anterior uses a simple past auxiliary.
The pluperfect is sometimes called the past perfect or first past perfect;
the past anterior is sometimes called the preterite perfect or second past perfect.

There are two compound tenses in the SUBJUNCTIVE mood:

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PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE:	"Abbia parlato"	<I have spoken>
	"Sia arrivato"	<I have arrived>
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE:	"Avessi parlato"	<I had spoken>
	"Fossi arrivato"	<I had arrived>

There is one compound tense in the CONDITIONAL mood:

PAST CONDITIONAL:	"Avrei parlato"	<I would have spoken>
	"Sarei arrivato"	<I would have arrived>

The PRESENT PERFECT tense ("passato prossimo"):
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is formed with a present tense auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb. It often should be translated by the English simple past rather than the English perfect tense which it resembles:

"L'ho fatto per te" .
The present perfect tense describes an action which occurred at a definite time in the past.

io	ho	parlato	<I have spoken, I spoke>
tu	hai	parlato	<you have spoken, you spoke>
lei	ha	parlato	<she has spoken, she spoke>
noi	abbiamo	parlato	<we have spoken, we spoke>
voi	avete	parlato	<you have spoken, you spoke>
loro	hanno	parlato	<they have spoken, they spoke>

io	sono	arrivato	<I have arrived, I arrived>
tu	sei	arrivato	<you have arrived, you arrived>
lei	è	arrivata	<she has arrived, she arrived>
noi	siamo	arrivati	<we have arrived, we arrived>
voi	siete	arrivati	<you have arrived, you arrived>
loro	sono	arrivate	<they (f.) have arrived, they arrived>

The FUTURE PERFECT tense ("futuro anteriore"):
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is formed with a future tense auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb. It describes an action which will occur in the future prior to another future event or situation, and must often be translated by the English present tense:
"Quando avrai finito, ceneremo" <When you have finished, we will eat supper>.
The future perfect may also indicate conjecture or possibility with regard to a past event:
"Sarà andato al teatro" <He probably went to the theater>.

io	avrò	parlato	<I will have spoken>
tu	avrai	parlato	<you will have spoken>
lei	avrà	parlato	<she will have spoken>
noi	avremo	parlato	<we will have spoken>
voi	avrete	parlato	<you will have spoken>
loro	avranno	parlato	<they will have spoken>

io	sarò	arrivato	<I will have arrived>
tu	sarai	arrivato	<you will have arrived>
lei	sarà	arrivata	<she will have arrived>
noi	saremo	arrivati	<we will have arrived>
voi	sarete	arrivati	<you will have arrived>
loro	saranno	arrivate	<they (f.) will have arrived>

The PLUPERFECT or past perfect tense ("trapassato prossimo"):

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is formed with an auxiliary in the imperfect tense and a past participle of the main verb. It is sometimes called the first past perfect, to distinguish it from the past anterior (the second past perfect). It describes an action which occurred in the past prior to another past event or situation.

io	avevo	parlato	<I had spoken>
tu	avevi	parlato	<you had spoken>
lei	aveva	parlato	<she had spoken>
noi	avevamo	parlato	<we had spoken>
voi	avevate	parlato	<you had spoken>
loro	avevano	parlato	<they had spoken>

io	ero	arrivato	<I had arrived>
tu	eri	arrivato	<you had arrived>
lei	era	arrivata	<she had arrived>
noi	eravamo	arrivati	<we had arrived>
voi	eravate	arrivati	<you had arrived>
loro	erano	arrivate	<they (f.) had arrived>

The PAST ANTERIOR or preterite perfect tense ("trapassato remoto"):

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is formed with an auxiliary in the simple past tense along with a past participle of the main verb. It is sometimes called the second past perfect, to distinguish it from the pluperfect tense (the first past perfect).

The past anterior is a literary tense, not used in conversation. Like the pluperfect, it describes an action which took place in the past prior to another past action (in the simple past tense), and must be introduced by
"quando" <when>,
"dopo che" <after> or
"appena" <as soon as>:
"Quando avesti finito, cenammo" <When you had finished, we ate supper>.

io	ebbi	parlato	<I had spoken>
tu	avesti	parlato	<you had spoken>
lei	ebbe	parlato	<she had spoken>
noi	avemmo	parlato	<we had spoken>
voi	aveste	parlato	<you had spoken>
loro	ebbero	parlato	<they had spoken>

io	fui	arrivato	<I had arrived>
tu	fosti	arrivato	<you had arrived>
lei	fu	arrivato	<she had arrived>
noi	fummo	arrivati	<we had arrived>
voi	foste	arrivati	<you had arrived>
loro	furono	arrivate	<they (f.) had arrived>

The CONDITIONAL mood ("condizionale"):
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is used to express a doubt, a wish, or a possibility.
Che cosa avremmo devuto fare? <What should we have done?>
Vorrei un panino di prosciutto. 
Gli studenti parlerebbero italiano, se potessero. <The students would speak Italian if they could.>
The conditional is also used in reported speech. In English, the conditional is used for reported speech with a past tense verb of saying ("She said she would come") and the future tense is used for reported speech with a present tense verb of saying ("She says she will come").

In Italian, though, the present conditional is used with a present tense verb of saying:
"Dice che verrebbe" <She says she would come>.

The past conditional is used with a past tense verb of saying:
"Disse che sarebbe venuta" <She said she would have come>.

The Present conditional is based on the future stem, and adds identical personal endings to all three conjugations:
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FIRST CONJUGATION	"parlare"	<to speak>
future stem:	parler-
io	parler-ei	<I would speak>
tu	parler-esti	<you would speak>
lei	parler-ebbe	<she would speak>
noi	parler-emmo	<we would speak>
voi	parler-este	<you would speak>
loro	parler-ebbero	<they would speak>

SECOND CONJUGATION	"vendere"	<to sell>
future stem:	vender-
io	vender-ei	<I would sell>
tu	vender-esti	<you would sell>
lei	vender-ebbe	<she would sell>
noi	vender-emmo	<we would sell>
voi	vender-este	<you would sell>
loro	vender-ebbero	<they would sell>

THIRD CONJUGATION	"dormire"	<to sleep>
future stem:	dormir-
io	dormir-ei	<I would sleep>
tu	dormir-esti	<you would sleep>
lei	dormir-ebbe	<she would sleep>
noi	dormir-emmo	<we would sleep>
voi	dormir-este	<you would sleep>
loro	dormir-ebbero	<they would sleep>

The PAST CONDITIONAL ("condizionale passato") is a perfect tense using the conditional of the auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb.

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io	avrei	parlato	<I would have spoken>
tu	avresti	parlato	<you would have spoken>
lei	avrebbe	parlato	<she would have spoken>
noi	avremmo	parlato	<we would have spoken>
voi	avreste	parlato	<you would have spoken>
loro	avrebbero	parlato	<they would have spoken>

io	sarei	arrivato	<I would have arrived>
tu	saresti	arrivato	<you would have arrived>
lei	sarebbe	arrivata	<she would have arrived>
noi	saremmo	arrivati	<we would have arrived>
voi	sareste	arrivati	<you would have arrived>
loro	sarebbero	arrivate	<they (f.) would have arrived>

The SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo"):

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indicates a subjective attitude toward the action or situation described by the verb. It is used to express an opinion or an uncertainty:
"Penso che dorma" ;
"Che abbia venduto la macchina?" 
It is also used after verbs of emotion, and of willing or hindering an event:
"Ho paura che sia troppo tardi" ;
"Desidero che venga con me" .

The subjunctive is always used after impersonal constructions ("It is...") and for the polite imperative ("Lei"):
"Bisogna che venda la sua macchina" <It is necessary for him to sell his car>;
"Parli piano" <Speak slowly/more literally: "If you would speak slowly>.

The subjunctive has four tenses: present, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect.

The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo presente") is formed as follows:

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	First Conjugation		Second Conjugation
	"parlare"	<to speak>	"vendere"	<to sell>
io	parl-i	<I speak>	vend-a	<I sell>
tu	parl-i	<you speak>	vend-a	<you sell>
lei	parl-i	<she speaks>	vend-a	<she sells>
noi	parl-iamo	<we speak>	vend-iamo	<we sell>
voi	parl-iate	<you speak>	vend-iate	<you sell>
loro	parl-ino	<they speak>	vend-ano	<they sell>

	THIRD CONJUGATION		THIRD (-isco) CONJUGATION
	"dormire"	<to sleep>	"pulire"	<to clean>
io	dorm-a	<I sleep>	pul-isca	<I clean>
tu	dorm-a	<you sleep>	pul-isca	<you clean>
lei	dorm-a	<she sleeps>	pul-isca	<she cleans>
noi	dorm-iamo	<we sleep>	pul-iamo	<we clean>
voi	dorm-iate	<you sleep>	pul-iate	<you clean>
loro	dorm-ano	<they sleep>	pul-iscano	<they clean>

The IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo imperfetto") is formed by adding personal endings to the imperfect stem. The endings are identical for all three conjugations:
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	FIRST CONJUGATION		SECOND CONJUGATION
	"parlare"	<to speak>	"vendere"	<to sell>
	imperfect stem: parla-		imperfect stem: vende-
io	parla-ssi	<I used to speak>	vende-ssi	<I sold>
tu	parla-ssi	<you used to speak>	vende-ssi	<you sold>
lei	parla-sse	<she used to speak>	vende-sse	<she sold>
noi	parla-ssimo	<we used to speak>	vende-ssimo	<we sold>
voi	parla-ste	<you used to speak>	vende-ste	<you sold>
loro	parla-ssero	<they used to speak>	vende-ssero	<they sold>

	THIRD CONJUGATION
	"dormire"	<to sleep>
	imperfect stem: dormi-
io	dormi-ssi	<I was sleeping>
tu	dormi-ssi	<you were sleeping>
lei	dormi-sse	<she was sleeping>
noi	dormi-ssimo	<we were sleeping>
voi	dormi-ste	<you were sleeping>
loro	dormi-ssero	<they were sleeping>

The PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE or PAST SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo passato") consists of the present subjunctive of the auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb.
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io	abbia	parlato	<I have spoken, I spoke>
tu	abbia	parlato	<you have spoken, you spoke>
lei	abbia	parlato	<she has spoken, she spoke>
noi	abbiamo	parlato	<we have spoken, we spoke>
voi	abbiate	parlato	<you have spoken, you spoke>
loro	abbiano	parlato	<they have spoken, they spoke>

io	sia	arrivato	<I have arrived, I arrived>
tu	sia	arrivato	<you have arrived, you arrived>
lei	sia	arrivata	<she has arrived, she arrived>
noi	siamo	arrivati	<we have arrived, we arrived>
voi	siate	arrivati	<you have arrived, you arrived>
loro	siano	arrivate	<they (f.) have arrived, they arrived>

The PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo trapassato") consists of the imperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the main verb.

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io	avessi	parlato	<I had spoken>
tu	avessi	parlato	<you had spoken>
lei	avesse	parlato	<she had spoken>
noi	avessimo	parlato	<we had spoken>
voi	aveste	parlato	<you had spoken>
loro	avessero	parlato	<they had spoken>

io	fossi	arrivato	<I had arrived>
tu	fossi	arrivato	<you had arrived>
lei	fosse	arrivata	<she had arrived>
noi	fossimo	arrivati	<we had arrived>
voi	foste	arrivati	<you had arrived>
loro	fossero	arrivate	<they (f.) had arrived>

Verbs and expressions that require the subjunctive in a dependent clause express:

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Emotion (joy, hope, sorrow, fear):
Sono contenta che lei lavori. (I'm happy she is working.)
Temiamo che piova. (We're afraid it's raining.)
A wish or command:
La maestra vuole che gli studenti ascoltino. (The teacher wants the students to listen.)
Voglio che tu lavori. (I want you to work.)

An opinion:
Penso che siano ricchi. (I think they are rich.)
Crede che Caterina abbia torto. (He thinks that Caterina is wrong.)

Doubt or uncertainty:
Non siamo sicuri che Angelo capisca. (We're not sure Angelo understands.)
Dubita che Cristina arrivi. (He doubts (that) Cristina will arrive.)

Expectation:
Aspettiamo che lui venga. (We are waiting for him to come.)

Verbs that express advising, permitting, forbidding, ordering, such as suggerire, ordinare, comandare, lasciare, permettere, proibire, raccomandare can be followed by two different constructions having the same meaning.
Permetti che io legga. (Will you let me read?)
Mi permitti di leggere. (Will you let me read?)

Subjunctive after Se and Impersonal Expressions:
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A hypothetical sentence (periodo ipotetico) consists of two clauses: a dependent clause introduced by se (if) indicating a condition, a possibility, or a hypothesis: and an independent clause indicating the result of the condition. A hypothetical sentence can express real situations, probable situations, and improbable situations.
Real:
Se vanno in Italia, visitano molte città. (If they go to Italy, they (will) visit many cities.)
Probable:
Se andassero in Italia, visiterebbero molte città. (If they went to Italy, they would visit many cities.)
Improbable:
Se fossero andati in Italia, avrebbero visitato molte città. (If they had gone to Italy, they would have visited many cities.)
When unlikely situations are described, the se clause is in the imperfect subjunctive and the result clause is in the conditional:
Se lui avesse una macchina, andrebbe in montagna. (If he had a car, he would go to the mountains.)

When impossible situations are described, the se clause is in the past perfect subjunctive and the result clause is in the conditional, usually the conditional perfect:
Se avesse studiato, avrebbe superato l'esame. (If she had studied, she would have passed the test.)

The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause and is introduced by che after impersonal verbs and expressions that express doubt, uncertainty, emotion.
E' importante che lei finisca il progetto. (It is important that she finishes the project.)
E' probabile che siano partiti. (It's probable that they left.)

All impersonal verbs and expressions are followed by a verb in the infinitive if the verb has no expressed subject.
Expressed subject
E' importante che tu parta. (It's important that you leave.)
Unexpressed subject
E' importante partire. (It's important to leave.)

Imperative:

Strictly speaking, the imperative mood is only used for second person ("you") familiar commands. For the other persons, the subjunctive mood is used as a "polite imperative."

Familiar ("tu" and "voi") positive commands are expressed by using the present indicative form, except that the imperative singular of first conjugation -ARE verbs ends in "-a" instead of "-i":

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	FIRST CONJUGATION		SECOND CONJUGATION
tu	parla	<speak!>	vendi	<sell!>
voi	parlate	<speak!>	vendete	<sell!>

	THIRD CONJUGATION		THIRD (-isco) CONJUGATION
tu	dormi	<sleep!>	pulisci	<clean!>
voi	dormite	<sleep!>	pulite	<clean!>

The NEGATIVE of familiar singular commands is expressed with the infinitive form
"Non parlare" <Don't talk!>;
"Non vendere la tua macchina" <Don't sell your car>;
"Non dormire" <Don't sleep>.
This is also the form used in written instructions (public signs, recipes, etc.), where it has a polite, impersonal sense:
"Non fumare" <No smoking>.

The polite forms of the second person ("Lei/Loro") and the first person plural ("noi") use the present subjunctive for commands:

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FIRST CONJUGATION
Lei	parli	<you should speak>
Loro	parlino	<you all should speak>
noi	parliamo	<let's speak>

SECOND CONJUGATION
Lei	venda	<you should sell>
Loro	vendano	<you all should sell>
noi	vendiamo	<let's sell>

THIRD CONJUGATION
Lei	dorma	<you should sleep>
Loro	dormano	<you all should sleep>
noi	dormiamo	<let's sleep>

The REFLEXIVE VERB ("verbo riflessivo")

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expresses an action in which the subject is also the object:
"Mi lavo" .
Reflexive verbs are conjugated with reflexive pronouns which normally precede the finite verb form but are attached to infinitives, adverbial participles (usually called gerunds) and affirmative commands:
"Mi lavo" ;
"lavarsi" <to wash oneself>;
"lavandoci" <washing ourselves>;
"Lavati" <Wash yourself!>.

Reflexive verbs can also express RECIPROCAL actions:
"Si parlano" <They speak to each other>.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS have the same form as direct object pronouns except in the third person, where the invariable form is "si".

	SINGULAR		PLURAL
First person	mi	<myself>	ci	<ourselves>
2nd familiar	ti	<yourself>	vi	<yourselves>
2nd polite	si	<yourself>	si	<yourselves>
Third person	si	<him/her/itself>	si	<themselves>

The Passive voice:

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In the PASSIVE VOICE, a verb is turned around so that its object becomes the grammatical subject. When the agent (doer) of the action is specified, the passive voice is expressed by the following construction:
SUBJECT + "essere" + past participle + "da" + AGENT
"Questa lettera è stata scritta da Paolo" <This letter was written by Paul>
Since the past participle acts as a predicate adjective (following the verb "is") in this construction, it agrees in gender and number with the subject.

If the passive subject is a thing and the doer is not mentioned, then a construction called the "SI PASSIVANTE" may be used. This passive reflexive construction is formed with the pronoun "si":
"Qui si vendono molti libri" <Many books are sold here>.

"Si" is also used as an impersonal pronoun (like the English "one" or "they"> to form IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS with an indefinite subject:
"Qui si mangia bene" <One eats well here>.

In compound tenses, impersonal "si" constructions must be conjugated with "essere" as the auxiliary, even when the verb would otherwise be conjugated with "avere":
"Qui si è lavorato molto" <They worked very hard here>.

If the verb is normally conjugated with "essere," then the past participle has a plural form:
"Si è abituati al lavoro" <They got used to the work>.

Passive conjugation:

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lodare (to praise)
Present Infinitive		Past Infinitive (Perfect Infinitive)
essere lodato (to be praised)		essere stato/-a/-i/-e lodato/-a/-i/-e
Present Participle		Past Participle
essendo lodato/-a/-i/-e		essendo stato/-a/-i/-e lodato/-a/-i/-e

		Present		Perfect (Passato Prossimo)
io	sono	lodato	sono	stato lodato
tu	sei	lodato	sei	stato lodato
lui/lei	è	lodato	è	stato lodato
noi	siamo	lodato	siamo	stato lodato
voi	siete	lodato	siete	stato lodato
loro	sono	lodato	sono	stato lodato

		Imperfect		Pluperfect (Past Perfect)
io	ero	lodato	ero	stato lodato
tu	eri	lodato	eri	stato lodato
lui/lei	era	lodato	era	stato lodato
noi	eravamo	lodato	eravamo	stato lodato
voi	eravate	lodato	eravate	stato lodato
loro	erano	lodato	erano	stato lodato

		Future		Future Perfect (Future Anterior)
io	sarò	lodato	sarò	stato lodato
tu	sarei	lodato	sarei	stato lodato
lui/lei	sarà	lodato	sarà	stato lodato
noi	saremo	lodato	saremo	stato lodato
voi	sarete	lodato	sarete	stato lodato
loro	erano	lodato	erano	stato lodato

		Simple Past (Historic)		Past Anterior
io	fui	lodato	fui	stato lodato
tu	fosti	lodato	fosti	stato lodato
Lui/Lei	fu	lodato	fu	stato lodato
noi	fummo	lodato	fummo	stato lodato
voi	foste	lodato	foste	stato lodato
loro	furono	lodato	furono	stato lodato

		Present Subjunctive		Past Subjunctive
io	sarei	lodato	sarei	stato lodato
tu	saresti	lodato	saresti	stato lodato
lui/lei	sarebbe	lodato	sarebbe	stato lodato
noi	saremmo	lodato	saremmo	stato lodato
voi	sareste	lodato	sareste	stato lodato
loro	sarebbero	lodato	sarebbero	stato lodato

		Imperfect Subjunctive		Past Perfect Subjunctive
io	fossi	lodato	fossi	stato lodato
tu	fossi	lodato	fossi	stato lodato
lui/lei	fosse	lodato	fosse	stato lodato
noi	fossimo	lodato	fossimo	stato lodato
voi	foste	lodato	foste	stato lodato
loro	fossero	lodato	fossero	stato lodato

		Present Conditional		Past Conditional
io	sarei	lodato	sarei	stato lodato
tu	saresti	lodato	saresti	stato lodato
lui/lei	sarebbe	lodato	sarebbe	stato lodato
noi	saremmo	lodato	saremmo	stato lodato
voi	sareste	lodato	sareste	stato lodato
loro	sarebbero	lodato	sarebbero	stato lodato

		Present Imperative		Past Imperative
tu	sii	lodato	essendo	stato/-a/-i/-e lodato/-a/-i/-e
noi	siamo	lodato	essendo	stato/-a/-i/-e lodato/-a/-i/-e
voi	siate	lodato	essendo	stato/-a/-i/-e lodato/-a/-i/-e

Participles:

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The ADVERBIAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE or gerund ("gerundio") is formed by adding a suffix to the verb stem:
 -ARE verbs add "-ando": parl-ando <speaking>
 -ERE verbs add "-endo": vend-endo <selling>
 -IRE verbs add "-endo": dorm-endo <sleeping>

Adverbial participles answer questions about the action expressed by the main verb: "Sbagliando si impara" <One learns by making mistakes> (answering the question, "How does one learn?").

They are used like English present participles to form progressive tenses with the verb "stare":
"Sto parlando" (Present progressive, answering the question, "What am I engaged in doing?");
"Stava dormendo" <He was sleeping> (Past progressive, answering the question, "What was he engaged in doing?").

Because they function as adverbs, defining an action, these participles are invariable in form, and do not agree in gender or number with the subject of the verb.

The ADVERBIAL PERFECT PARTICIPLE (Gerundio perfetto) is formed with the adverbial present participle of the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the main verb:
"avendo parlato" <having spoken>;
"essendo arrivato" <having arrived>.

NOTE: The Italian name "gerundio" has led to the use of the English word "gerund" to denote adverbial participles. This is misleading, since the English gerund is a verbal noun ("Walking is good exercise"). It is best for English--speaking students to avoid using the term "gerund" when studying the Romance languages like Spanish and Italian.

The ADJECTIVAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE or simple participle ("participio presente") is formed by adding the following suffixes to the verb stem:

 -ARE verbs add "-ante": parlante <speaking>
 -ERE verbs add "-ente": vendente <selling>
 -IRE verbs add "-ente": dormente <sleeping>

The ending follows the form of unisex adjectives ending in "_e," changing to "_i" in the plural: "l'uomo dormente" <the sleeping man>; "le lezione seguenti" <the following lessons>.

The PAST PARTICIPLE ("participio passato") is formed by adding the following suffixes to the verb stem:

 -ARE verbs add "-ato": parlato <spoken>
 -ERE verbs add "-uto": venduto <sold>
 -IRE verbs add "-ito": dormito <slept>

The ending is inflected like a regular adjective:

 MASCULINE SINGULAR: parlato venduto dormito
 FEMININE SINGULAR: parlata venduta dormita
 MASCULINE PLURAL: parlati venduti dormiti
 FEMININE PLURAL: parlate vendute dormite

When used with the auxiliary verb "essere" to form compound tenses, the past participle agrees in person and number with the subject of the verb:
"Giulia è arrivata" <Julia has arrived>.

When used with the auxiliary verb "avere" to form compound tenses, the past participle has an invariable ending, except that it can agree with a preceding direct object:
"Ho comprato una macchina fotografica" ;
"Ecco la cartolina postale che ho comprata" <Here's the postcard I bought>.

The past participle can also be used in what is called the ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION, where it modifies a noun to form a phrase with no strict grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence:
"Finita la lezione, sono partiti" <When the lesson was over, they left>.

The noun being modified may form part of the absolute construction, as in the preceding example, or it may be the subject of the main clause:
"Arrivata a Firenze, Giulia gli telefonò" <Having arrived in Florence, Julia telephoned him >.

Note that the past participle agrees in both gender and number with the noun it modifies in the absolute construction.

The INFINITIVE ("infinito"):

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is the basic form of a verb given in a dictionary. There is a different infinitive ending for each of the three conjugations:

1ST CONJUGATION	parlare	<to speak>
reflexive	lavarsi	<to wash oneself>
2ND CONJUGATION	vendere	<to sell>
reflexive	sedersi	<to sit down>
3RD CONJUGATION	dormire	<to sleep>
reflexive	sentirsi	<to feel>

Infinitives have two tenses: present and past. The present infinitive is the simple form given above. The past infinitive is a compound form consisting of the present infinitive of the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the main verb:

FIRST CONJUGATION:	avere parlato	<to have spoken>
-	essere arrivato	<to have arrived>
reflexive:	essersi lavato	<to have washed oneself>

2ND CONJUGATION:	avere venduto	<to have sold>
-	essere caduto	<to have fallen>
reflexive:	essersi seduto	<to have sat down>

3RD CONJUGATION:	avere dormito	<to have slept>
-	essere uscito	<to have gone out>
reflexive:	essersi sentito	<to have felt>

Infinitives can function as VERBAL NOUNS, with or without an accompanying definite article (invariably masculine singular):
"Il ballare è molto divertente" <Dancing is very entertaining>.
The infinitive is always used after the MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS "potere" <to be able to>, "dovere" <to have to> and "volere" <to want to>:
"Non può parlare" <He can't speak>;
"Ho dovuto portare il loro bagaglio" ;
"Voglio mangiare" .

The infinitive is used for familiar NEGATIVE COMMANDS:
"Non andare" <Don't walk!>.
It can also be used to give impersonal commands (the type found on public signs, etc.):
"Non fumare" <No smoking>.

The infinitive is also used after verbs which are followed by the linking prepositions "a" and "di," and with the causative of "fare" (to make something be done):
"Cominciarono a cantare" <They began to sing>;
"Speravano di essere a tempo" <They hoped to be on time>;
"Fa' correggere gli errori" <See to it that the errors are corrected!>.

Auxiliary Verbs ("verbi ausiliari"):

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"Avere" <to have> and "essere" <to be> are used as AUXILIARY VERBS to form the compound tenses. Generally speaking, "avere" is used with TRANSITIVE verbs (verbs which take an object) while "essere" is used with REFLEXIVE and INTRANSITIVE verbs (verbs of motion, position, physical or mental condition, etc.):
"Abbiamo venduto la casa" <We have sold the house>;
"Si è frenata" <She restrained herself>;
"Voi siete arrivati a tempo" <You arrived on time>.
"Stare" <to stay, to be> is used as an auxiliary verb with adverbial participles (so-called gerunds) to form PROGRESSIVE TENSES.

The present progressive uses the present tense of "stare": "Sto parlando" .

The past progressive uses the imperfect tense of "stare": "Stava leggendo" <He was reading>.

"Andare" is used in a similar fashion as an auxiliary verb: "Andava cantando" <He went around singing>.

Polite vs. familiar forms:

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"Tu" (plural "voi") is the familiar form of address; to use it is to "dare del tu." This form of address is used with family members, close friends, children and pet animals:
"Tu vai al teatro?" <Are you going to the theater?>.
The polite form "Lei" (plural "Loro") is more commonly used in conversation (it does not have to be capitalized); to use it is to "dare del Lei":
"Vorrebbe Lei venire con me?" <Would you like to come with me?>.

The polite form of address uses third person verb forms, even though the voice is actually second person (direct address). This gives a sense of formality and respectful distance to the conversation:
"Dove abita lei?" <Where does she live?>;
"Dove abita Lei?" <Where do you live?>.

Verb-Preposition Idioms:
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The following verbs require the preposition a when followed by an infinitive. The preposition is not necessarily always translated into English.
abituarsi (to get used to)
aiutare (to help)
andare (to go)
cominciare (to begin)
divertirsi (to enjoy oneself)
fermarsi (to stop)
imparare (to learn)
invitare (to invite)
mandare (to send)
mettersi (to begin)
obbligare (to oblige)
pensare (to think of)
riuscire (to succeed)
sbrigarsi (to hurry)
stare (to stay, to stand)
tornare (to return)
venire (to come)

Vado a giocare a calcio. (I go to play soccer.)
Impariamo a parlare in italiano. (We learn to speak Italian.)
Sono venuti a trovarmi. (They came to see me.)

The following verbs require the preposition di when followed by an infinitive.

accettare (to accept)
ammettere (to admit)
aspettare (to wait)
avere bisogno (to need)
avere paura (to be afraid)
avere voglia (to feel like)
cercare (to try)
credere (to believe)
domandare (to ask)
finire (to finish)
offrire (to offer)
pensare (to plan)
sapere (to know)
suggerire (to suggest)
tentare (to try)
vietare (to forbid)

Ho bisogno di un caffè. (I need a coffee.)
Ho finito di mangiare alle otto. (I finished eating at 8:00.)
Tentiamo di riparare l'aspirapolvere. (We're trying to fix the vacuum cleaner.)

Pronominal and Adverbial Particles: "Ne", "ci", and "vi":
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When used as a PRONOMINAL PARTICLE, "ne" stands for something mentioned earlier, and means "of it," "about them," etc.:
"Non ne ho bisogno" .
When used as an ADVERBIAL PARTICLE, "ne" means "from there," "from here":
"Ne siamo appena tornati" <We've just come back from there>.

"Ci" and "vi" are object pronouns, but they are also used as pronominal particles representing a previously mentioned noun or verb with the understood preposition "a." When used that way, "ci" and "vi" mean "to it/them," "in it/them," "about it/them," etc.:
"Ci penso" <I'm thinking about it>.

When used as adverbial particles, they mean "there" or "to there":
"Ci vado" <I'm going there>.

"Ci" and "vi" change to "ce" and "ve" in front of "lo," "la," "li," "le" and "ne."

Questions:
Many questions begin with either an interrogative pronoun or an interrogative adverb.
Interrogative pronouns include the following:
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Che? Che cosa? Cosa? <What?>
Chi? <who? whom?>
Quale? Quali? <which one? which ones?>
Quanto?(-a,-i,-e,) <how much? how many?>

Che cosa vuole? <What does she want?>
Con chi parli? <With whom are you talking?>
Quante vengono? <How many are coming?

Interrogative adverbs include the following:
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Come? <how?>
Quando? <when?>
Perchè? <why?>
Dove? <where?>
Come mai? <how come?>
Come stai? <How are you?>
Perche non studi l'italiano? <Why don't you study Italian?>

Sentences:

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Sentences are made up of one or more CLAUSES.
A clause consists of a SUBJECT (a noun or pronoun) and a PREDICATE (what is said about the noun or pronoun).

The predicate always contains a verb.

In the simple sentence:
Il re ama la regina. <The king loves the queen.>
re is the subject and ama is the predicate.

When an adjective or noun is used along with the verb essere <to be> in order to tell us what is being asserted about someone or something, the adjective or noun is said to be in the predicative position.

In the sentence:
Il re è un amante <The king is a lover.>
amante is a predicate noun.

Predicate adjectives and nouns have the same case as the noun or pronoun they inform us about.

The DIRECT OBJECT of a verb is a noun or pronoun which receives its action.
In the sentence:
Il re ama la regina <The king loves the queen>
regina is the direct object of the verb.

Some verbs take an INDIRECT OBJECT.
In the sentence;
Il re dà un regalo alla regina <The king gives a gift to the queen.>
regalo <servant girl> is the direct object and alla regina <to the queen> is the indirect object.

Some verbs conjugated with essere in compound tenses:

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abbronzare (to tan)
Accadere (to happen)
accorrere (to run)
andare (to go)
avvenire (to occur)
bastare (to be sufficient)
bisognare (to need)
cadere (to fall)
capitare (to happen)
crepare (to crack)
derivare (to derive)
fiorire (to flourish)
immigrare (to immigrate)
nascere (to be born)
occorrere (to have (to))
partire (to leave)
rinascere (to be reborn)
spiacere (to be sorry)
svenire (to faint)
tornare (to return)
uscire (to go out)
venire (to come)
arrivare (to arrive)
entrare (to enter)
restare (to remain)
diventare (to become)
scendere (to descend)
stare (to stay)
List of irregular verbs:

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The following verbs are irregular in different tenses and persons.
andare (to go)
bere (to drink)
cadere (to fall)
cogliere (to pick)
comprendere (to understand)
dare (to give
dire (to say)
divenire (to become)
dovere (to have to, must)
fare (to do, to make)
godere (to enjoy)
introdurre (to introduce)
morire (to die)
parere (to appear)
piacere (to please)
porre (to put)
potere (to be able, can)
riempire (to fill)
rimanere (to remain)
salire (to go up)
sapere (to know)
scegliere (to choose)
stare (to stay)
tacere (to be silent)
tenere (to keep)
tradurre (to translate)
udire (to hear)
uscire (to go out)
vedere (to see)
venire (to come)
vivere (to live)
volere (to want)

These verbs are irregular only in the passato remoto (past absolute) and/or the participio passato (past participle). Regular forms are given in parentheses.

Imfinitive (translation) Passato Remoto Participio Passato
accendere (to light) accesi acceso
accorgersi (to notice) accorsi accorto
aprire (to open) (aprii) aperto
chiedere (to ask) chiesi chiesto
concludere (to conclude) conclusi concluso
conoscere (to know) conobbi (conosciuto)
coprire (to cover) (coprii) coperto >

Transfer interrupted!
font size=+1>correre (to run) corsi corso
decidere (to decide) decisi deciso
dipingere (to paint) dipinsi dipinto
discutere (to discuss) discussi discusso
dividere (to divide) divisi diviso
esplodere (to explode) esplosi esploso
evadere (to escape) evasi evaso
fingere (to pretend) finsi finto
giungere (to arrive) giunsi giunto
leggere (to read) lessi letto
mettere (to put) misi metto
nascere (to be born) nacqui nato
offrire (to offer) (offrii) offerto
perdere (to lose) persi perso
 (perdei) (perduto)
 (perdetti)
piangere (to cry) piansi pianto
piovere (to rain) piovve (piovuto)
prendere (to take) presi preso
rendere (to give back) resi reso
ridere (to laugh) risi riso
rispondere (to respond) risposi risposto
rompere (to break) ruppi rotto
scendere (to descend) scesi sceso
scoprire (to discover) (scoprii) scoperto
scrivere (to write) scrissi scritto
spegnere (to turn off) spensi spento
spingere (to push) spinsi spinto
succedere (to happen) successi successo
trascorrere (to spend (time)) trascorsi trascorso
uccidere (to kill) uccisi ucciso
vincere (to win) vinsi vinto

Conjunctions:
Coordinate conjunctions (e, ma, and o) join units that are equal grammatically (fill the same position in the sentence) or join two clauses of the same type:
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Scivolò e cadde sul pavimento. (He slipped and fell on the floor.) E joins two verbs.

Si muoveva velocemente ma silenziosamente. (He moved quickly but quietly.) Ma joins two adverbs

Possiamo andare attraverso il fiume o attraverso i boschi. (We can go over the river or through the woods.)O joins two adverbial phrases

Ieri sera andò a casa e trovò le finestre rotte. (She went home last night and found the windows broken.) E joins two clauses.

The conjunctions:

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entrambi · e (both· and..)
non solo· ma anche· (not only.. but also·)
sia · che· (either·or·)
nè · nè·. (neither·nor·)
serve to intensify the coordination.
Entrambi Maria ed io andremo alla festa. (Both Maria and I will go to the party.)

Non solo diede regali a tutti noi, ma anche ci invitò alla festa. (She not only gave all of us presents, but she also invited us to the party.)

Nè I soldi nè il potere possono farti felice. (Neither money nor power can make you happy.)

Sia mio marito che io possiamo portarti a casa. (Either my husband or I can drive you home.)

If only two elements (two words, two phrases, two clauses) are joined by a coordinate conjunction, no comma is needed before the conjunction:
Il dottore gli disse di non fumare o bere. (The doctor told him not to smoke or drink.)
Disse che era molto stanco e che stava per andare a casa. (He said that he was very tired and he was going home.)
If three or more units are joined, commas separate them:
Uomini, donne, e bambini sono benvenuti. (Men, women, and children are welcome.)

subordinate conjunctions:
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join elements of unequal rank, establishing a relation of subordination between two phrases or clauses. Following is the list of commonly used subordinate conjunctions:
perchè because
quando when
mentre while
appena che as soon as
una volta che once (that)
come as
se if
sebbene although
a condizione che at the condition that
a meno che unless
dopo che after that
before that prima che
fino a che until

Non lo vide dopo che lui ebbe lasciato la città. (She never saw him after he left the town.)

Prese la multa perchè guidava troppo veloce. (He got a ticket because he was speeding.)

Una volta che hai lavato lâauto asciugala bene. (Once you have washed the car, dry it very well.)

Si ammalò gravemente da quando ebbe l'incidente. (She became very ill, since she had her accident.)

Non va mai ai festini, a meno che sua moglie non vada con lui. (He never goes to parties unless his wife comes with him.)

Aspetteremo dentro fino a che la smette di piovere. (We will wait inside until the rain stops.)

Subordinate Clause:

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serves as part of a sentence but do not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself. They are subordinate to the main clause.
The adjective clause (also called relative):
has the same function that an adjective or an apposition has in a sentence. That is, it specifies a preceding noun, noun phrase or pronoun. Relative clauses are linked to the main clause by means of relative pronouns.
John, che è fratello di Mario, è venuto a trovarci. (John, who is Mario's brother, came to see us.)
The verb is in the indicative mood when in the relative clause a real and certain situation is presented:
La ragazza, che prese in prestito la rivista, entrò nella stanza. (The girl who borrowed the magazine, entered the room.)

Il negozio, nel quale ho comprato la rivista, era chiuso. (The shop where I bought the magazine was closed.)

The verb is in the subjunctive mood instead, when a possible, uncertain, wished, feared or hypothetical situation is presented:
Non sembra esserci nessuno di cui mi possa fidare. (There seems to be nobody I can trust.)

Qualsiasi persona che conosca le regole, può giocare. (Anybody that knows the rules can play.)

The interrogative pronoun chi is actually a double pronoun, in that it always refers to people. It stands for:
whoever (that)
he/she (who)
those (who)
and therefore it often introduces a relative clause.

Chi ha già terminato il compito, può lasciare la stanza. (Those who have already completed the assignment can leave the room.)

Che (that) is by far the most frequently used relative pronoun.

Noun clauses have the same function that a noun, used as a subject or an object, has in a sentence.

Eâ ben saputo che il vino migliore è fatto in Francia.
(It is well known that the best wine is made in France.) (clause acts as a subject)

So che il vino migliore è fatto in Francia.
(I know that the best wine is made in France. )(clause acts as an object)

La mia convinzione che il vino migliore sia fatto in Francia, è corretta.
(My belief that the best wine is made in France is correct.) (clause is appositive to subject)

Noun clauses:

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occur most frequently as the object of the verb in the main sentence. Compare:
Lui si lamentava ai suoi amici di sua moglie. (He complained to his friends about his wife.)
Lui si lamentava ai suoi amici che sua moglie era una cattiva cuoca. (He complained to his friends that his wife was a bad cook.)

The verbs in the main clause usually express mental activities or states and speech:

credere (to believe)
sapere (to know)
dichiarare (to declare)
dire (to tell)
ricordare (to remember)
scrivere (to write)
mostrare (to show)
chiedere (to ask)
spiegare (to explain)
consigliare (to suggest)
dispiacersi (to regret)
sognare (to dream)
predire (to predict)
insegnare (to teach)
accorgersi (to realize)
rispondere (to answer)
menzionare (to mention)
notare (to notice)

Non ho notato se lui portava gli occhiali. (I didn't notice whether he was wearing the glasses.)

Credo che sia una persona onesta. (I believe that she is an honest person.)

Non so se abbia intenzione di venire alla festa. (I don t know whether or not she plans to come to the party.)

Noun clauses must be linked to the main clause with che (that) or se (if) and take the indicative if they express a real and certain situation, and the subjunctive if they express an unreal, uncertain or possible condition:
Indicative:
So che il vino migliore è fatto in Francia. (I know that the best wine is made in France.)
Subjunctive:
Penso che ilvino migliore sia fatto in Francia. (I think that the best wine is made in France.)

However, the noun clause takes the conditional if it expresses an unreal, uncertain or possible condition that is likely to happen in the future:
Penso che dovresti farlo. (I think that you should do that.)

Sequence of tenses in noun clauses:

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The main verb in the present does not require sequence of tenses.
Lui dice che: (He says (that):
l'autobus arriva sempre in ritardo. (the bus always arrives late.)
l'autobus sta per arrivare. (the bus is arriving.)

l'autobus è arrivato in ritardo. (the bus has arrived late.)

l'autobus arrivò in ritardo. (the bus arrived late.)

l'autobus arriverà presto. (the bus will arrive soon.)

l'autobus potrebbe arrivare presto. (the bus may be arriving soon.)

If you compare these present tense sentences with the past tense sentences below, you notice that the main verb in the past requires the verb in the noun clause to be shifted to the past:
Lui disse che: (He said (that):

l'autobus arrivava sempre in ritardo. (the bus always arrived late.)

l'autobus stava per arrivare. (the bus was arriving.)

l'autobus era arrivato in ritardo. (the bus had arrived late.)

l'autobus arrivò in ritardo. (the bus arrived late.)

l'autobus sarebbe arrivato presto. (the bus would arrive soon.)

l'autobus avrebbe potuto arrivare presto. (the bus might be arriving soon.)

Direct and Indirect Address

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There are two ways of describing what one or more persons have said.
To refer to the exact words said by a person, direct address (discorso diretto) is used:
Gianni disse: "Ho comprato questa macchina." (Gianni said: "I bought this car.")
Disse is the verb of the first sentence, ho comprato is the verb of the second sentence. The two verbs are independent.

To refer to something that was said, without using the exact words said by that person, indirect or reported speech (discorso indiretto) is used:
Gianni disse che aveva comprato quella macchina. (Gianni said that he had bought that car.)
Disse is the principal verb on which the tense of the secondary verb depends (aveva comprato)

Indirect address is the union of two or more actions, two or more verbs -- one that is principal and the others are secondary or dependent. The principal verb determines the tenses and moods of the dependent verbs.

Some examples:
DISCORSO DIRETTo	DISCORSO INDIRETTO
Disse: "Conosco questa donna." (He said: "I know this woman.")	Disse che conosceva quella donna. (He said (that) he knew that woman.)
Gli rispose: "E' strano che tuconosca questa donna." (She responded to him: "It's strange that you know this woman.")	Gli ripose che era strano che lui conoscesse quella donna. (he responded to him that it was strange that he knew that woman.)
Disse: "Andrò al mare. (He said: "I will go to the beach.")	Disse che sarebbe andato al mare. (He said (that) he would go to the beach.)
Disse: "Sono arrivata alle sette." (She said: "I arrived at seven.")	Disse che era arrivata alle sette. (She said that she had arrived at seven.)
Disse: "Vorrei mangiare." (She said: "I would like to eat.")	Disse che avrebbe voluto mangiare (She said that she would like to eat.)

Adverbial Clauses
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Like an adverb, the adverbial clause modifies the predicate of the main clause.
The following conjunctions introduce an adverbial clause:
quando (when)
mentre (while)
dal momento che (since)
prima che (before)
dopo che (after)
fino a che (until)
appena che (as soon as)

Quando piove, non mi piace guidare. (When it rains, I don't like to drive.)

Mentre camminavo nel parco, vidi dei bambini litigare. (While I was walking in the park, I saw children fighting.)

Dal moment che non vuole ascoltarmi, non gli parlerò più. (Since he doesn't want to listen to me, I will not talk to him any more.

Lavatevi le mani, prima che vi mettiate a tavola. (Wash your hands before you sit down for dinner.)

Dopo che ebbe finito i compiti, andò a letto. (After she finished her homework she went to bed.)

Fino a che non avrai finito i compiti, non potrai andare a giocare. (Until you haven't completed your homework, you won't be going to play.)

Adverb clauses of time:
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This type of clause, also called a temporal clause, establishes a relation of time with the main clause.

CONTEMPORANEITY. If the action expressed in the adverbial clause is occurring at the same time as the one expressed in the main clause, the adverbial clause is introduced by one of the following conjunctions:
quando, allorchè, allorquando (when)
nel momento che, al tempo in cui (at the time that)
mentre (while)
finchè, fintantochè (as long as)

The verb in the temporal clause will be in the indicative mood.
Quando non ci sei, mi sento triste. (When you are not here, I feel sad.)

Mentre dormivamo, ha piovuto a dirotto. (While we were asleep, it rained heavily.)

Tutto questo succedeva al tempo in cui abitavamo in campagna. (All of this happened at the time that we were living in the country.)

Puoi restare qui fintanto che te ne stai tranquillo. (You can stay here as long as you are quiet.)

Mentre guardavo la televisione, il telefono squillò. (While I was watching TV, the phone rang.)

This type of adverbial clause can also be expressed by the present gerund if its subject coincides with that one of the main clause:
Elena leggeva, ascoltando la radio. (Elena was reading, (while she was) listening to the radio.)

The clause of cause and effect indicates the cause or the reason for which a situation expressed in the main clause is verified. The following conjunctions are used with this type of clause:
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perchè, perciò, onde per cui, ragion per cui (because)
come (as)
fintanto che (as long as)
in quanto che, per il fatto che, dal momento che, (since)
poichè, giacchè, siccome, ora che (now that)

Non esco perchè sono stanco. (I'm not going out because I'm tired.)

Dal momento che il tempo era così brutto, decidemmo di non uscire. (Since the weather was so bad, we decided not to go out.)

Ora che il progetto è completato, posso prendermi due giorni di vacanza. (Now that
the project is completed, I can take a few days off.)

Come arriva lâinverno, passiamo meno tempo fuori. (As it is winter now, we spend less time outside.)

Fintanto che sei libero, puoi portare la lettera allâufficio postale per me? (As long as you are free, can you take the letter to the post office for me?)

Eâ così sensibile che ogni piccola cosa lo disturba. (He is so emotional that every little thing upsets him.)

Aveva passato la settimana scorsa allâospedale, ragion per cui era piuttosto debole quando tornò a casa. (He spent the last week in the hospital, so he was quite weak when he came back home.)

If the subject of the main clause coincides with the subject in the adverbial clause, adverbial clauses of causes and effect can also be expressed by a present or past gerund or past participle:
Avendo finito di studiare, il ragazzo potè finalmente uscire. (Since he had completed his homework, the boy could finally go out.)

Conditional clauses:
Statements with real conditions express different kinds of conditional meanings.

Possibility:
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Se piove, cosa faremo? (If it rains, what will we do?)

Se hai bisogno di qualcosa, fammelo sapere. (If you need anything, please let me know.)

I lavoratori in sciopero torneranno al lavoro, se raggiungeranno l'accordo con l'amministrazione. (The strikers will go back to work if they reach the agreement with the administration.)

Supposition:

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Se sarai nominato, ti opporrai alle sue misure? (If you are elected, will you oppose his measures?)
Note that in Italian if the action will take place in the future (the main clause verb is in the future), the verb in adverbial clause is also in the future.

Se farà bel tempo andremo al picnic. (If the weather is nice, we will go on a picnic.)

Se domani avrà abbastanza tempo, mi chiamerà. (If she has enough time tomorrow, she will call me.)

Comparative clauses:

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Adverbial clauses of comparison are usually introduced by comparative words, such as:
come (as)
piuttosto che (rather than)
che (than)
di quanto (than)
una volta che (once)
fintanto che (as long as)
allorquando (when)

L'esame è stato difficile proprio come prevedevo. (The test was as hard as I thought it would be.)

Finì molto più presto di quando avevamo calcolato. (It ended much sooner than we planned.)

La nuova macchina non è tanto più efficiente di quanto lo sia quella vecchia. (The new machine is not more efficient than the old one.)

Comparative clauses can also be expressed in Italian with piuttosto di plus infinitive:
Piuttosto di stirare tutta quella biancheria , laverei i piatti tutto il giorno. (Rather than iron all that linen, I would wash dishes all day long.)

Punctuation differences:
In almost all cases, Italian punctuation is the same as punctuation in English. Following are some exceptions:
Periods in abbreviations :
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Often the period is in the middle of an abbreviation

Sig. Signor (Mr.)
Sig.ra Signora (Mrs.)
Sig.na Signorina (Miss)
Egr. Egregio (distinguished)
C.V. curriculum vitae (resume)
Spett.le Spettabile (respectable)
All. allegato (enclosures)
v. vedi (see)

Since the dawn of the internet, the English word "dot" has entered Italian with the meanings:
period, decimal point, and "dot" (as in "netscape.com" = netscape dot com).

Comma in expressions of time:

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In Italian, expressions of time are written with a comma instead of a colon:
8,30 di mattina 8:30 a.m.
10, 45 di sera 10:45 p.m.
11,15 di notte 11:15 p.m.

Quotation marks (le virgolette):
enclose the direct quotation, that is the repetition of someone's exact words. Frequently in Italian they appear in this manner: << >>
L'avvocato disse: <<Lei è disoccupato?>> (The lawyer said: "You are unemployed?")

Prefixes and suffixes:
Common Prefixes
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ante	(before)	antefatto	(antecedents)
con	(with)	condividere	(to divide between)
contra	(against)	contrattacco	(counterattack)
de/di	(from)	deviare	(to deviate)
in	(in, as a negative)	inesperto	(inexpert)
in	(in, used in forming verbs)	infiammare	(to inflame)
pre	(before)	preavviso	(forewarning)
trans/tras	(across)	Transatlantico	(transatlantic)
Latin prefixes
a/ab	from/out of	abrogazione	(abrogation)
bi/bis	(twice)	bisnonno	(great-grandfather)
inter	(between)	interporre	(to interpose)
pos	(after)	posdomani	(the day after tomorrow)
pro	(forward)	proporre	(to put forward)
per	(through/for/because of)	perlustrare	(to reconnoiter)
re/re	(again)	reazione	(reaction)
semi	(half)	semicerchio	(semicircle)
e/ex	(out)	eccetto	(except)
Greek Prefixes
anti	(against)	anticomunista	(anti communist)
peri	(around)	periscopio	(periscope)
sin	(with)	sincronico	(synchronous)

common suffixes (Many from Latin)
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-zione	-tion	operazione	(operation)
-tore	-man	pescatore	(fisherman)
-ia	-y	gloria	(glory)
-ibile	-ible	incredibile	(incredible)
-ismo	-ism	feminismo	(feminism)
-ista	-ist	socialista	(socialist)
-ice	-ess	actrice	(actress)
-ore	-or	venditore	(vendor)
-orio	-ory	migratorio	(migratory)
x-oso	-ous	geloso	(jealous)

Numbers:

Cardinal Numbers:

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0 zero	10 dieci	20 venti
1 uno/una	11 undici	21 ventuno	10 dieci	100 cento	1.000 mile
2 due	12 dodici	22 ventidue	20 venti	200 duocento	2.000 duemila
3 tre	13 tredici	23 ventitre	30 trenta	300 trecento	3.000 tremila
4 quatro	14 quattordici	24 ventiquatro	40 quaranta	400 quatrocento	4.000 quatromila
5 cinque	15 quindici	25 venticinque	50 cinquanta	500 cinquecento	5.000 cinquemila
6 sei	16 sedici	26 ventisei	60 sessanta	600 seicento	6.000 seimila
7 sette	17 dicasette	27 ventisette	70 settanta	700 settecento	7.000 settemila
8 otto	18 dicotto	28 ventotto	80 ottanta	800 ottocento	8.000 ottomila
9 nove	19 diciannove	29 ventinove	90 novanta	900 novacento	9.000 novemila
10 dieci	20 venti	30 trenta	100 cento	1.000 mile	10.000 diecimila
			101 cent(o)uno	1.100 millecento	11.000 undici mila

Cardinal numbers are used in Italian to count, to indicate quantities, and for giving all dates except the first of every month (which is always "il primo".)
Milione, miliardo, bilione, trilione, etc.
are nouns in italian and must be preceded by the indefinite article un or any other number and must be fillowed by the preposition di when used before another noun:
$1.000.000 = un milione di dollari
$2.ooo.ooo = Due milione di dollari
IL1.000.000.000 = un miliardo di lire (Equivalent to the U.S. billion)
IL2.ooo.ooo.ooo = due miliardi di lire (note that miliardi is plural)

Bilione, trilione, etc. are ambiguous:
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Bilione, for example, now most often means 1,000,000,000 (one thousand million, the same as miliardo and the U.S. billion) although it still sometimes means 1,000,000,000,000 (one thousand thousand million).
Trilione now usually means 1,000,000,000,000 (one thousand thousand million, the same as the U.S. trillion) although it still sometimes means 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (one thousand thousand thousand thousand million. If your talking about large amounts of money, especially your own money, it is best to show the amount you mean in written figures.

In Italian, The only way to say 1,ioo through 1,900 is millecento, milleduecento, milletrecento, etc. There is no italian equivalent to "thirteen hundred".

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Collective Numbers ("about ten, about sixty, etc.), normally formed by dropping the final vowel of the cardinal numbers and adding -ina, are used to express approximations ("about ten", "about fifty", etc.) Collective numbers are feminine nouns and are almost always indefinite, so they normally require the indefinite article una. They are followed by the preposition di if used with another noun.
una diecina <about ten>
una cinquantina <about fifty>
una trentina di nostri amici <about thirty of our friends>
Exceptions:
un centinaio <about a hundred>, centinaia <hundreds>
un migliaio <about a thousand>, migliaia <thousands>

Dozen/dozens (of):
una dozzina, due dozzine, etc. <a dozen, two dozen, etc.>
Una Dozzina di mele <a dozen apples>
a Dozzina <by the dozen>)
 (uno sacco di: Ho uno sacco di cose da fare, -- sacco really means "sack" so 

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Cardinal numbers in simple Mathematical constructions:
 piu = plus -- Addizione
 meno = minus -- sottrazione
 per = times, multplied by -- multiplicazione
 diviso per = divided by -- divizione
 Fratto = divided by -- divizione

 fa (fanno) = equals, are
 e uguale a = equals, are
tre piu sette fa (fanno) dieci <3 + 7 = 10>
 (Tre piu sette e uguale a dieci <3 + 7 = 10>)
trenta meno quindici fa (fann0) quindici <30 - 15 = 15>
cinque per sei fa (fanno) trenta <5 x 6 = 30>
quaranta diviso per diece fa (fanno) quatro <40 : 10 = 4>

Fractions -- frazione:
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1/2 = la meta <one/a half> (le due mete <both halves>) (1 1/2 = uno e meta <one and a half>)
1/2 = mezzo,-a,-i,-e <one/a half (something)> (I due mezzi (cosi) <both half (somethings)>)

La meta is the noun and mezzo is the adjective:
la meta della classe <half of the class>
mezza bottiglia <a half bottle>

Other fractions use the same word for nouns and adjectives, but they are also inflected when used as adjectives, e.g., la terza bottiglia
1/3 = un terzo <one/a third> (2/3 = due terzi <two thirds>) (1.2/3 = uno e due terzi <one and two thirds>)
1/4 = un quarto <one/a fourth or one/a/quarter>
1/5 = un quinto
1/6 = un sesto
1/7 = un settimo
1/8 = un ottavo
1/9 = un nono
1/10 = un decimo
1/11 = un undecimo
....
1/17 = un diciasettimo
1/18 = un dicottimo/un dicottavo
1/19 = un dicianovimo/un dicianono
1/20 = un ventesimo
1/21 = un ventunesimo
1/22 = un ventiduesimo
1/23 = un ventitresimo
....
1/28 = un ventottesimo/un ventottavo
....
1/100 = un centesimo
....
1/1000 = un millesimo

As in English, fractions are formed by using a cardina number in the numerator and an ordinal in the denominator, and if the numerator is more than one, the denominator is plural.
Sources differ on how to form obscure fractions -- mathematicians appear to prefer "un ventottesimo" for 1/28 (but are just as likely to say "uno diviso per (or fratto) ventotto.") Linguists like "un ventottoavo" for 1/28 (but they also may just say "uno diviso per ventotto.")

As in English, any fraction can be spoken like "dieci diviso per ventitre <ten divided by twenty three>.

Fratto also is translated by the English word fractional.

Decimals (Frazione decimale):
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Decimal fractions are formed regularly in Italian using the word "virgola" <comma>. True to the word, a comma is used in Italian rather than the period used in English:
1,25 = uno virgola venticinque <1.25 = one point two five>
Italians with many english speaking contacts may say "uno punto (decimale) venticinque" when speaking to Enlish speakers.

Multiplicative numbers (double, triple, etc.):
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Multiplo <multiple, manifold>
doppio <double, twice, dual, twofold>
triplo <triple, treble, threefold>
quadruplo <quadruple>
quintuplo <quintuple>
sestuplo <sextuple>
settuplo <septuple>
ottuplo <octuple>
nonuplo <nontuple>
dieci volte maggiore/tanto <tenfold, decuple>
undici volte maggiore/tanto <elevenfold>
centuplo <hundredfold, centuple>
mille volte magiore/tanto <thousandfold>

Multi-, dupli-, tripli- quadrupli-, etc. are used as prefixes

multiplicare, duplicare, triplicare, quadruplicare, etc. <to miltiply, to double, to triple, to quadruple, etc.>

Telephone numbers:
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Italian phone numbers can have from five through ten (or even more) digits.
Area codes are either two or three digits, almost always start with zero, and may or may not have to be dialed within local areas -- in Rome, for example, the 06 area code has to be dialed before local numbers.

To speak a phone number, first say the individual digits of the area code (e.g., "zero, sei" for Rome, or "zero, sette, uno" for Ancona).

then say the numbers in groups of two (55551515 is "cinquantacinque, cinquantacinque, quindici, quindici" -- 55-55-15-15.) if there are three digits left at the end of the number, they are combined into a group (55151 is "cinquantacinque, centocinquantuno" -- 55-151 -- never "cinquantacinque, quindici, uno.")
A number including its area code combines the two usages. (Ancona 555151 is "zero, sette, zero, cinquantacinque, centocinquantuno" -- 1-7-1-55-151.)

The country code for Italy is 39 and is said as a two number group ("trentanove") before all the other numbers (Rome, Italy 55551515 is "trentanove, zero, sei, cinquantacinque, cinquantacinque, quindici, quindici" -- 39-0-6-55-55-15-15.)

If you ask for a repeat, and the person on the line recognizes that you are a foreigner, you may get all the digits individually (39 06 55551515 would be "tre, nove, zero, sei, cinque, cinque, etc." -- 3-9-0-6-5-5-etc.)

Collective numerals are numbers that indicate an approximate quantity. Most of these numbers are formed by adding the suffiix -ina to the cardinal number (minus the final letter). Collective numerals are nouns and take the preposition di before another noun.

Ho parlato con un quarantina di studenti. (I spoke with about 40 students.)

12 roses (12, an exact number)	una dozzina di rose (an approximation, around 12)
venti (twenty)	una ventina (around twenty)
cinquanta (fifty)	una cinquantina (around fifty)

Exceptions:
un centinaio (pl. centinaia) around a hundred (hundreds);
un migliaio (pl. migliaia) around one thousand (thousands)

Ordinal Numbers
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ORDINAL NUMBERS EXPRESS DEGREE, QUALITY, OR POSITION IN A SERIES OR SUCCESSION.

1st primo	11th undicesimo/ decimoprimo	100th centesimo
2nd secondo	12th dodicesimo/ decimosecondo	200th du(e)centesimo
3rd terzo	13th tredicesimo/ decimoterzo	300th trecentesimo
4th quarto	etc.	etc.
5th quinto
6th sesto	20th ventesimo	101st centunesimo/ centesimo primo
7th settimo	30th trentesimo	etc.
8th ottavo	etc.
9th nono		1,000th millesimo
10th decimo	21st ventunesimo/ ventesimo primo
	22nd ventiduesimo/ ventesimo secondo	1,000,000th milionesimo
	etc.
		nth ennesimo
		last ultimo

As in English, ennesimo <nth> can mean "any number" or can mean "utmost"
Ordinals agree with the nouns the modify in gender and number

Ordinals normally precede the noun the modify ("il primo capitolo" <the first chapter>) but can follow the noun for empasis and always follow the noun to indicate lines of succession of kings, Popes, ect.: Enrico Ottavo <Henry the Eighth>, Papa Pio decimo < Pope Pius the Tenth.

As in English, ordinals can be used without the noun they modify, but if the noun is known the ordinal should be inflected.

Only the ordinal primo is used in dates: Oggi e il primo (di) febbraio <Today is the first of February.>
All other dates us cardinal numbers: Oggi e il cinque (di) Febbraio <Today is February the fifth.>)

"To the nth power"
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x al quadrato = x squared
x al cubo = x cubed
x alla quarta (potenza) = x to the fourth (power)
x all'ennesima (potenza) = x to the nth (power)

radice quadrata di x = the square root of x
radice cubica di x = the cube root of x
quarta radice di x = the fourth root of x
ennesima radice di x = the nth root of x

Time
What hour is it?
Che ora e? / Che ore sono?

e l'una ---->	di notte ----> di pomeriggio ---->	it's one a.m. it's one p.m.
e mezzogiorno ---->	---->	it's noon
e mezzanotte ---->	---->	it's midnight
sono le due del pomeriggio ---->	---->	it's two p.m.
sono le quattro ---->	di notte ----> del pomeriggio ---->	it's four a.m. it's four p.m.
sone le cinque ---->	di mattina ----> del pomeriggio ---->	it's five a.m. it's five p.m.
sono le undici ---->	di mattina ----> di notte ---->	it's 11 a.m. it's 11 p.m.

Because the word ora,-a is implied, the feminine definite article is used.
Italian uses e (singular) for 1 o'clock and sono (plural) for hours more than one o'clock.
e l'una <It's one o'clock>
sono le sei <it's ("they are") six o'clock>

Morning, Noon and Night:
A.M. (antimeridiano) and P.M. (postmeridiano) exist in Italian, and the abreviations are the same as in English, but they are rarely used. Some Italians use a.m./p.m only when talking to foreigners.

di mattina (5 a.m. to noon),
del pomeriggio (noon to 5/6 p.m.),
di sera (5/6 p.m. to 10 p.m.), and
di notte (10 p.m. to 5 a.m.) are more commonly used.

Borders between pomeriggio / sera / notte / mattina vary considerably, but the mattina / pomeriggio line is more consistently at noon.

"Mezzogiorno," however, can stretch out several hours into a long lunch. "il mezzogiorno" is the south of Italy, which is famous for long lazy afternoons. "a mezzogiorno" means <in the south>, while "al sud" means <to the south.> "sono a mezzogiorno" can mean <they are lazy> as well as <they are taking a long lunch.>

Minutes are added to the hour using e <and>:
sono le due e venti. = <it's 2:20>
E l'una e trentotto = <it's 1:38>
Sono le otto e cinquantanove = <it's 8:59.>

Minutes past the half hour can also be expressed as:
the next hour minus (meno) the minutes until the next hour --
 Sono le dieci meno venti = <it's 20 minutes before 10> or <it's 9:40>,
or as:
Minutes "left to go" (mancare = to be lacking) before the next hour --
 Mancano dieci minuti alle sette = <it is (They are lacking) ten minutes before seven>
 Manca un/uno minuto alla sei = <it is (it is lacking) a/one minute before six.

Rarely, minutes can be added to any time for emphasis, meaning "you are this many minutes late" --
Sono le nove e venticinque e dieci <(roughly) It's 9:35 and you were supposed to be here ten minutes ago at 9:25.>

Quarters and thirds of Hours:
 (ora,-e) e un quarto <a quarter past>
 ... e mezzo/mezza <half past>
 ... e tre quarti <three quarters past> (rarely used)
 ... meno un quarto <a quarter to>
 ... e un terzo/terza <20 past> (rarely)
 ... meno un terzo/terza <20 til> <Rarely>

At what time? When?
 A Che ore ...?
A mezzogiorno <at noon>
All'una precisa <at one o'clock sharp>
alle otto precise <at eight sharp>
alle otto e trentotto <at 8:38>

Time expressions:
 in anticipo <early, ahead of time>
 in orario <on time>
 in ritardo <late>
 in punto <sharp, on the dot, punctual(ly)
 precisa,-e <sharp>
 le ore di punta <rush hour(s)>
 la mattina <in the morning>
 il pomeriggio <in the afternoon>
 la sera <in the evening>
 la notte <at night>
 E' presto <It's early/it's on time>
 E' tardi <it's late>
 ieri <yesterday>
 ieri l'altro/l'alto ieri <the day before yesterday/the other day>
 oggi <today>
 domani <tommorow><figuratively -- "whenever">
 dopodomani <the day after tomorrow>
 ...fa <...ago> --
 venti minuti fa <20 minutes ago>
 molto tempo fa <a long time ago>
 secoli fa <centuries ago>
 Fra...e... <between...and...> --
 fra otto e nove <between 8 and 9>
 circa <about/approximately> --
 e circa l'una <it's about one>
 Sono circa le tre <it's about three>

One Time, Two Times, Many times, at times, Sometimes, etc.
 Volta,-e
La volta expresses repetative time:
 Dillo ancora una volta <SAy it once more (one more time)>
 Quante volte ...? <How many times ...?>
 A volte .... <At times ....>
 Qualche volta... <sometimes> --
 volta is singular because qualche is always followed by singular nouns
 La secunda volta <the second time>
 Mille volta <a thousant times> <countless times>
 c'era una volta <there once was/once upon a time>
 una volta per sempre <once and for all>
 per l'ultima volta <for the last time>
 tre volte stupido <utterly stupid>
 ogni volta <every/each time>
 due per volta/tre per volta/etc. <two at a time/three at a time/etc.>
 la volta tua <your turn>
 la prossima volta <the next time>
 la altra volta <the other time>
 un'altra volta <another time>
 etc.

Days, months, seasons, years, dates
Days of the week:
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 Lunedi <(on) Monday>
 Martedi <(on) Tuesday>
 Mercolodi <(on) Wednesday>
 Giovedi <(on) Thursday>
 Venerdi <(on) Friday>
 Sabato <(on) Saturday>
 Domenica(F) <(on) Sunday>
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED WITH DAYS TO MEAN "EVERY":
 LA DOMEMICA = <EVERY SUNDAY>
 IL VENERDI = <EVERY FRIDAY>
MONTHS:
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 GENNAIO <JANUARY>
 FEBBRAIO <FEBRUARY>
 MARZO <MARCH>
 APRILE <APRIL>
 MAGGIO <MAY>
 GIUGNO <JUNE>
 LUGLIO <JULY>
 AGOSTO <AUGUST>
 SETTEMBRE <SEPTEMBER>
 OTTOBRE <OCTOBER>
 NOVEMBRE <NOVEMBER>
 DICEMBRE <DECEMBER>
"IN/A GENNAIO"

SEASONS:
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 LA PRIMAVERA <SPRING> (IN PRIMAVERA)
 L' ESTATE <SUMMER> (IN ESTATE)
 L' AUTUNNO <AUTUMN> (IN AUTUNNO)
 L' INVERNO <WINTER> (IN INVERNO)

DATES:
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"QUAL E' LA DATA?"
 RESPONSES:
 "OGGIE E' IL PRIMO (DI) FEBBRAIO." (FIRST DAY OF EACH MONTH)
 "OGGIE E' IL SETTE (DI) MAGGIO." (ALL OTHER DAYS USE CARDINALS)
 MUST USE THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
 "DI" IS OPTIONAL.

OR, "QUANTI NE ABBIAMO OGGI?"
 RESPONSES:
 "NE ABBIAMO UNO."
 "NE ABBIAMO CINQUE."
 ALWAYS USE ORDINALS.
 DEFINITE ARTICLE IS NOT USED.
 MONTH NAME IS NOT USED.

Centuries (secoli):
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il Undicento (secolo) = 1101 through 1200
il Duecento (secolo) = 1201 through 1300
il Trecento (secolo) = 1301 throuh 1400
il Quatrocento (secolo) = 1401 through 1500
il Cinquecento (secolo) = 1500 through 1600
il Seicento (secolo) = 1601 through 1700
il Settecento (secolo) = 1701 through 1800
l'Ottocento (secolo) = 1801 through 1900
il Novecento (secolo) = 1901 through 2000

Note that Italian uses "the 1200 (century)" where English uses "the 13th century." The word secolo is used only if needed to avoid confusion.

Centuries are capitalized.

Idiomatic Verb Constructions:

Piacere <to be pleasing to/(roughly) to like>:
Usually used in the third person singular or plural, depending on whether what is pleasing is singular or plural:
Singular --

present	piace
imperfect	piaceva
future	piacera
conditional	piacerebbe
present perfect	e' piaciuto,-a
past perfect	era piaciuto,-a
future perfect	sara piaciuto,-a
conditional perfect	sarebbe piaciuto,-a

Plural --

present	piacciono
imperfect	piacevano
future	piaceranno
conditional	piacerebbero
present perfect	sono piaciuti,-e
past perfect	erano piaciuti,-e
future perfect	saranno piaciuti,-e
conditional perfect	sarebbero piaciuti,-e

Note that piacere is conjugated with essere so the past participle agrees with its subject.
The recipient of the action (the person(s)) to whom something is pleasing is either the indirect object (or the dative object -- indirect object -- pronoun) or the object (or the disjunctive object pronoun) of the preposition "A."

If the indirect object (dative) pronoun is used, it precedes the verb: Mi piace.... and the subject (that which is pleasing) follows the verb: mi piace il film. The verb, naturally, agrees with its subject.

If a + disjunctive is used it Precedes the verb or follows the subject which follows the verb: A me (disjunctive object pronoun) piace il film (subject). -- 0r-- Piace il film (subject) a me(disjunctive pronoun.)

An infinitive can be the subject of piacere:
Mi piace viaggiare. <To travel is pleasing to me./I like to travel.>
Piace viaggiare a me. <To dance is pleasing to me./I like to dance.>
(The English usage of the participle as a noun is not used with piacere.

Fare:
Weather --
Che tempo fa? <How is the weather?/lit.: What weather makes (it)?>
Fa bel (cattivo) tempo. <the weather is good (bad).:/Lit.: It makes good (bad) weather.>
Fa freddo. <It's cold.>
Fa molto caldo. <it's very hot.>
(But: Poive. <It's raining.>, Neve. <It's snowing.>, Tira vento. <The wind is blowing.>
Professions --
Che cosa fa Suo padre? <What does your father do?>
Mio padre fa il medico. <My father is a doctor.>
Faccio il musicista. 

in place of English "have" -- to "Have something done" --
Faccia aprire la porta. <Have the door opened.>
Mi sono Fatto un vestito. 
Le ho fatto scrivere una lettura. 
Note the use of the infinitive vice the English usage of the past participle.

Other Idiomatic Expressions --
Fare una domanda <to ask a question>
fare un viaggio <to take a trip>
fare un bagno <to take a bath>
Fare una passeggiata <to take a walk>
Fare colazione <to have breakfast/brunch/light lunch>
fare da mangiare <to make lunch or dinner>
fare attenzione <to pay attention>
fare un piachere <to do a favor>
Fare una conferenza <to give a lecture>
Farsi male <to hurt oneself>
farsi la barba <to shave>
Si fa tardi. <It's getting late.>
Non fa niente. <It's all right.>

Avere:
To be hungry = to have hunger; to be thirtsy = to have thirst
Ho fame <I'm hungry>
Ho sete <I'm thirsty>
Ho caldo <I'm warm> (not the same as Fa caldo <it's hot/warm>)
ho freddo <i'm cold> (not the same as Fa freddo <it's cold>)
Ho fretta <I'm in a hurry>
Ho paura <I'm afraid>
Ha ragione <You're right>
Ho sonno <I'm sleepy>
Also:
Ho venticinque anni <he's fifteen years old>
Ha i capelli biondi <He has blond hair/his hair is blond>
Che cosa hai? <what's the matter with you (familiar singular?>
Non ho niente. <Nothing is the matter with me.>

Essere vs. Stare:
Essere and stare both are often translated into English as "to be" but are not interchangeable.
Although efforts have been made to determine rules about their usage, there appear to be almost as many exceptions as there are uses. The easiest way to deal with them is therefore to memorize which kind of expression uses each verb.

Examples:
Milano e Napoli sono in Italia. -- simple location indicated by sono <they are>
Come staI? Sto bene. -- health condition indicated by staI <are you?> and sto 
Sono Ammalati. <I'm not well./(more litterally) I am fallen ill.> -- health indicated by sono as a helping verb to form the participle of ammalare <essere ammalato,-a,-i,-e = to be(come) ill>
Siamo arrivati. <We arrived.>
Stiamo andando a casa. <We are going home.> -- progressive
Stiamo per andare a casa. <We are about to go home.>
Stiamo a Milano. <We live in milan.>
Stai zitto! <Be Quiet!>
Stai a sentire! <Listen to this!>

C'e and Ci sono:
C'e = <there is>
Ci sono = <there are>
C' ere = <there was>
C'erano = <there were>

C'e ancora molto da fare. <There is still much to do.>
Ci sono quattro posti liberi. <There are still four empty positions.>
C'era molto da fare. <There was much to do.>
C'erano molte cose da fare. <There were many things to do.>

Aver bisogno di and Bisognare:
Aver bisogno (noun, masculine, singular) di expresses lack of something and is translated literally as "to have need of." --
Ho bisogno di un paio di scarpe. 
The verb bisognare is impersonal and means "to be necessary." It is always followed by the subjuntive. --
Bisogna ch'egli parta. <It is necessary that he go.>

Volere:
Volere <to wish/want> is conjugated irregularly:
voglio, vuoi, vuole, vogliamo, volete, vogliono
Although volere is used regularly in Italian, its translations are idiomatic in English:

Voglio partire.	<I want to leave.>
Vuol farmi questo?	<Will you do this for me? (more literally: Do you want to do this for me?>
Vorrei andarci anch'io.	<I, also, would like to go there.>
Cosa vuol dire questa parola?	<What does this word mean? (more literally: This word wants to say what?>
Ci vogliono due ore per andare.	<It takes two hours to go (there). (more literally: It wants two hours to go (there).>
Come vuole.	<As you wish.>
Voglio bene a mia madre.	<I love my mother. (more literally: I wish my mother well.>

Dare:
dar ragione <to agree ("give agreement")>
dar torto <to disagree ("give disagreement")>
dare la mano a <to shake hands with ("to give the hand to")>
dare del tu, del voi, del Lei, del Loro <to use tu, voi, Lei, Loro(in direct address)>

Andare:
Andare in treno, in automobile <to go by (lit: in) train, by car>
Andare a cavallo <to ride hrseback>
Come va? <How goes it?>
Va bene. <Very well.>

Sapere and Conoscere:
Both sapere and conoscere are translated as "to know" in English, but sapere really means "to have knowledge about" while conoscere merely means "to be acquainted with."
Conoscere also can mean to meet or make the aqcuantaince of.

Sa che ore e? <Do you know what time it is?>
Conosco quel signore. 
Vorrie conoscerla. <I'd like to meet her.>
Non sa suonare il pianoforte. <He doesn't know how to play the piano.>
Piacere di conoscerLa. <I'm pleased to meet you.>
So dove la stazione. 
Conosco quell'albergo. 

The Italian Alphabet and pronunciation:

Consonant Pairs

Articles in Italian

Omission of the Article:

Plural Indefinite Articles: The partitive construction:

Interjections:

Prepositions:

Prepositions are invariable connecting words preceding elements in a sentence (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs) that show the relationship between other elements or other sentences:

Some prepositions (a, da, di, in, su) contract and combine with the definite article to form a single word as shown in the chart below. (These are called preposizioni articolate.)

Along with the simple prepositions there is a group words, called preposizioni improprie which are actually adverbs, adjectives or rarely verbs, but often they function as prepositions:

Nouns: Gender and agreement

Gender and number

NOUNS ("sostantivi") can have two GENDERS ("generi"), masculine and feminine, and two NUMBERS, singular and plural.

Agreement:

Quantity in nouns:

Noncount nouns:

Noun/Adjective Suffixes:

Diminutives:

Augmentatives

Pejorative:

Other Noun/Adjective Suffixes:

CONTRACTIONS:

*Modern Italian uses separate words in place of archaic forms: e.g., "con lo" vice "collo." ADJECTIVES

ADVERBS:

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES:

POSESSIVES

Demonstratives:

Pronouns:

The subject pronouns are:

OBJECT PRONOUNS are either direct or indirect, and cannot stand alone without a verb. The direct object receives the action of the verb directly while the indirect object is indirectly affected by it. With the exception of "loro," they PRECEDE the conjugated verb:

After prepositions, the following DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS are used:

Relative pronouns:

Indefinite Pronouns:

Doubled Pronouns (Pronomi doppi):

Imperative with Pronoun:

Negation:

Verbs "i verbi":

Conjugation: tense, person, and number

First Conjugation:

Second Conjugation

Third Conjugation

Avere and Essere:

essere (to be)

The PRESENT tense ("presente"):

of regular verbs is formed by adding a set of personal endings to the verb stem.

The FUTURE tense ("futuro"):

is formed on the basis of a future stem, which is the same as the infinitive (dropping the final "-e"), except that the A of 1st conjugation -AR verbs changes to E. Identical personal endings are used for all three conjugations:

Other ways of expressing the future:

The IMPERFECT tense ("imperfetto"):

of regular verbs is formed by replacing the final "_re" of the infinitive form with personal endings. Those endings always begin with the letter "v" and are identical for all three conjugations.

The SIMPLE PAST tense ("passato remoto"):

of regular verbs is formed by adding personal endings directly to the verb stems. Each conjugation has a separate set of endings:

The COMPOUND or PERFECT TENSES:

There are two compound tenses in the SUBJUNCTIVE mood:

There is one compound tense in the CONDITIONAL mood:

The PRESENT PERFECT tense ("passato prossimo"):

is formed with a present tense auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb. It often should be translated by the English simple past rather than the English perfect tense which it resembles:

"L'ho fatto per te" <I did it for you>.

The PLUPERFECT or past perfect tense ("trapassato prossimo"):

The PAST ANTERIOR or preterite perfect tense ("trapassato remoto"):

is formed with an auxiliary in the simple past tense along with a past participle of the main verb. It is sometimes called the second past perfect, to distinguish it from the pluperfect tense (the first past perfect).

The CONDITIONAL mood ("condizionale"):

The PAST CONDITIONAL ("condizionale passato") is a perfect tense using the conditional of the auxiliary verb and a past participle of the main verb.

The SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo"):

The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo presente") is formed as follows:

The PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ("congiuntivo trapassato") consists of the imperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary verb and the past participle of the main verb.

Verbs and expressions that require the subjunctive in a dependent clause express:

Subjunctive after Se and Impersonal Expressions:

Imperative:

Strictly speaking, the imperative mood is only used for second person ("you") familiar commands. For the other persons, the subjunctive mood is used as a "polite imperative."

Familiar ("tu" and "voi") positive commands are expressed by using the present indicative form, except that the imperative singular of first conjugation -ARE verbs ends in "-a" instead of "-i":

The polite forms of the second person ("Lei/Loro") and the first person plural ("noi") use the present subjunctive for commands:

The REFLEXIVE VERB ("verbo riflessivo")

The Passive voice:

Passive conjugation:

Participles:

The INFINITIVE ("infinito"):

Auxiliary Verbs ("verbi ausiliari"):

Polite vs. familiar forms:

Verb-Preposition Idioms:

**Along with the simple prepositions there is a group words, called preposizioni improprie which are actually adverbs, adjectives or rarely verbs, but often they function as prepositions:**

**NOUNS ("sostantivi") can have two GENDERS ("generi"), masculine and feminine, and two NUMBERS, singular and plural.**

Modern Italian uses separate words in place of archaic forms: e.g., "con lo" vice "collo."*
ADJECTIVES

**Doubled Pronouns (Pronomi doppi):**

stare (to stay)
List of irregular verbs: